--- title: Major depressive disorder: 371 studies, explained | Niyora description: 371 studies on major depressive disorder and PMS or PMDD, each summarised in plain English: what was tested, who took part, what they found and what it means. url: https://niyora.com/research/topics/comorbidity-major-depression/ --- - [Niyora](https://niyora.com/) - [Research](https://niyora.com/research/) - [Library](https://niyora.com/research/library/) - Major depressive disorder # Major depressive disorder: what the research says 371 studies on major depressive disorder in PMS and PMDD, each explained in plain English. 25 of them use the strongest designs: randomised trials and systematic reviews. Survey study 100 Review 55 Cohort study 47 Randomised trial 46 Study 41 Case-control study 23 Cohort study, 2026 What genetic factors are linked to premenstrual symptoms? One genetic location on chromosome 12 was clearly associated with PMS. The genetic factors linked to PMS are also linked to depression. Systematic review, 2026 How often do mood disorders and PMS or PMDD occur together? Very often. Between 42% and 49% of women have both PMS or PMDD and a mood disorder at the same time, depending on which condition was diagnosed first. Randomised trial, 2025 Does taking an antidepressant only during the second half of your cycle reduce anger and aggression in PMDD? Yes. Taking escitalopram 20 mg during the second half of the menstrual cycle significantly reduced PMDD symptoms including irritability and anger, and reduced aggressive responses to provocation. Survey study, 2025 Is premenstrual syndrome inherited from your family? A study found that genes play a small role in who gets PMS symptoms. One genetic change was linked to PMS, and this same genetic pattern is also linked to depression. Review, 2024 What are the most effective treatments for PMDD? According to this literature review, SSRIs (antidepressants) and cognitive-behavioral therapy are the most commonly recommended first-line treatments. Birth control pills with drospirenone are also effective. Systematic review, 2024 How common is PMDD? PMDD affects 3.2% of women when diagnosed with confirmed criteria and 7.7% when using provisional diagnosis. This means PMDD is less common than some estimates suggest. Cohort study, 2023 Are PMS symptoms linked to genetic factors for psychiatric disorders? Yes. Women with PMS were more likely to have genetic factors for depression, bipolar disorder, ADHD, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorder. This was a large, well-designed study, so we can be confident in these findings. Cohort study, 2023 Does PMDD increase the risk of depression or bipolar disorder later? Yes. Women with PMDD were 2.58 times more likely to develop depression and 2.50 times more likely to develop bipolar disorder compared to women without PMDD. These conditions also developed earlier in women with PMDD. Systematic review, 2023 Is PMDD linked to depression? PMDD and depression are strongly linked. Nearly all studies found that people with PMDD were more likely to have depression, and people with depression were more likely to have PMDD. Systematic review, 2022 What increases the risk of depression after childbirth? Premenstrual syndrome is the strongest known risk factor for postpartum depression, nearly doubling the risk. Violent experiences and unintended pregnancy are also strong risk factors. Systematic review, 2021 Are there hormone changes that could explain PMDD or depression in women? Yes, women with PMDD have lower estrogen levels during the luteal phase of their cycle, and women with depression have lower testosterone levels. These hormonal differences may contribute to their symptoms. Survey study, 2011 Is premenstrual syndrome related to major depression? Yes. Women with moderate to severe PMS are significantly more likely to have depression (11.3% to 24.6% depending on PMS severity). Women with both conditions are more severely impaired than those with either alone. Non-randomised trial, 2008 Can the Sheehan Disability Scale measure whether treatments work? Yes. The scale was able to tell the difference between treatments that worked and treatments that didn't in clinical trials. Randomised trial, 2004 Does dosing sertraline continuously or just before the period work better for severe PMS? Both dosing schedules worked about equally well, significantly better than placebo. Randomised trial, 2004 What medications work for PMDD when taken only during the second half of the menstrual cycle? SSRIs including sertraline, fluoxetine, and paroxetine are the most proven treatment for PMDD when taken during the luteal phase. Symptom reduction is similar to taking them continuously, but with less medication exposure and lower costs. Cohort study, 2004 Do women with PMS have worse menopausal symptoms? Yes, women with PMS are significantly more likely to experience hot flushes, depression, poor sleep, and low libido during menopause. This large five-year study provides strong evidence for this connection. Review, 2004 How should doctors diagnose and treat PMS and PMDD? Doctors can now diagnose these conditions using specific prospective symptom tracking and have several evidence-based treatments. Antidepressants that increase serotonin, especially when taken only during the luteal phase, work best for severe symptoms. Randomised trial, 2000 How should PMDD be diagnosed and treated? PMDD is a distinct condition from regular PMS, characterized by mood symptoms like irritability and anger. SSRIs taken daily or only during the menstrual cycle are first-line treatment and work very well with minimal side effects. Randomised trial, 2000 Does sertraline improve how women with PMDD feel and function? Yes. Sertraline was clearly better than placebo at improving how women with PMDD functioned and their quality of life, and improvements appeared by the second month of treatment. Randomised trial, 1999 Is sertraline more effective than other antidepressants for severe PMS or PMDD? Yes. Sertraline was significantly more effective than both placebo and desipramine at reducing severe PMS and PMDD symptoms, with 65% of women improving by more than 50%. Randomised trial, 1997 Does sertraline reduce PMDD symptoms and improve women's ability to function? Yes, sertraline significantly reduced symptoms and improved functioning. 62% of the sertraline group had much or very much improvement compared to 34% of the placebo group. Randomised trial, 1996 Does sertraline help PMDD symptoms? Yes. In this study, 68% of women taking sertraline had much or very much improvement, compared to 40% taking placebo. This strongly suggests sertraline works for severe premenstrual symptoms. Randomised trial, 1995 Does spironolactone help PMS symptoms? Yes. Spironolactone significantly reduced mood symptoms like irritability and depression, and physical symptoms like breast tenderness and bloating, compared to placebo. Review, 1992 Is PMS really caused by hormones? The evidence that PMS is caused by hormones is unclear. Psychological and individualized treatments may work better than hormone treatments for PMS. Review, 1989 Are mental health conditions linked to the reproductive cycle? Psychiatric disorders like PMS and postpartum depression are linked to the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. But research on PMS is still early and many questions remain. Case-control study, 2026 Does PMS increase the risk of depression after childbirth in women with a history of depression? Yes. Women with PMS had a 45.5% rate of postpartum depression compared to 22.5% without PMS, making it 2.87 times more likely. Survey study, 2026 Are PMDD and ADHD linked in women with bipolar disorder? In women with bipolar disorder, 44.2% have PMDD, and those with PMDD also have higher ADHD symptom scores. Genetic risk for ADHD was linked to both PMDD severity and ADHD symptoms. Study, 2026 Do anxiety and depression get worse before your period if you already have a mental health condition? Yes. If you have depression, bipolar disorder, or other mental health conditions, symptoms often worsen before your period due to hormone changes. This can affect how well treatments work. Survey study, 2026 Are women who feel mood changes from birth control pills at higher risk for PMDD and postpartum depression? Yes. Women who reported mood problems from the pill were 3.78 times more likely to have PMDD and 1.66 times more likely to have depression after childbirth, though genetic factors and depression history also matter. Study, 2026 What are premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder? Between 5% and 8% of women have moderate-to-severe symptoms that cause significant problems with work, relationships, and daily life. These are called PMS or PMDD. PMDD is the most severe form. Study, 2026 What treatments work for PMDD? SSRIs (a type of antidepressant) and certain types of birth control are the main first-line treatments. New treatments targeting brain chemistry are being developed. Systematic review, 2026 Are women with PMDD more likely to have suicidal thoughts or attempts? Yes. People with PMDD show clearly higher rates of suicidal thoughts, planning and attempts than would be expected, though no study yet has tested treatments to reduce this risk. Review, 2026 Do PMDD, postpartum depression and perimenopausal depression have the same genetic causes? It's unclear. Researchers have looked at several of the same genes in all three conditions but found inconsistent results. Most genetic research has focused on postpartum depression, not PMDD. Case-control study, 2025 Is the stress hormone system different in women with PMDD? Women with PMDD had significantly lower cortisol levels throughout the menstrual cycle compared to controls (p=0.0004 in follicular phase, p=0.0007 in luteal phase), suggesting PMDD may have a different mechanism than other depression types. Study, 2025 What brain changes do women with PMS and PMDD have? Brain imaging shows that women with PMS and PMDD have structural and functional differences in their limbic system (the emotion center of the brain), particularly in three areas: the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus. These differences may help explain the symptoms. Randomised trial, 2025 Does blocking progesterone change brain structure in people with PMDD? No. A progesterone-blocking medication did not change white matter structure in the brain compared to placebo, though some secondary analyses showed differences that need further study. Case-control study, 2024 How does PMDD affect how women understand and feel what others are experiencing? Women with PMDD show unusual brain patterns related to empathy during the luteal phase: they have stronger emotional responses but have more difficulty understanding other people's perspectives. This may explain the severe social difficulties that women with PMDD report during this phase. Case-control study, 2024 Are hormone and growth factor levels different in women with PMDD during the luteal phase? Yes. Women with PMDD have higher progesterone and cortisol during the late luteal phase, and these are linked to worse symptoms. Growth factors that may protect are lower in women with PMDD. Study, 2024 Do depressive symptoms change across the menstrual cycle? Yes, depressive symptoms changed significantly across the menstrual cycle, and the amount of change differed between women and between individual symptoms. Measuring symptoms in the afternoon gave the most reliable results. Survey study, 2024 How common are PMS and PMDD in young Turkish women and what factors are linked to them? PMS affects about 49% of young Turkish women and PMDD about 48%. Blood type B was far more likely to have PMS than blood type A. Lower physical activity, longer menstrual cycles, more caffeine, and depression were also linked to PMDD. Cohort study, 2023 Are premenstrual disorders linked to depression, anxiety, and self-harm in teenage girls? Yes. Girls with premenstrual disorders have 4 to 7 times higher rates of depression, anxiety, self-injury, and suicide risk compared to boys and girls without the disorder. This suggests premenstrual disorders may cause much of the difference in mental health problems between teenage boys and girls. Systematic review, 2022 Does having PMDD increase the risk of depression during pregnancy or after birth? Yes. Women with PMDD have higher risk of depression after giving birth. Evidence for depression during pregnancy is less clear from current studies. Survey study, 2022 Do women with PMDD have different brain function at different cycle phases? Yes. Women with PMDD have worse focus and decision-making during the week before their period, and they have more difficulty managing emotions throughout the cycle. Randomised trial, 2022 Does having an irregular menstrual cycle before pregnancy increase depression during pregnancy? Yes, women with irregular cycles before pregnancy were more likely to have depression during pregnancy. Cycle length itself did not predict depression, only how consistent the cycles were. Cohort study, 2022 What are PMS and PMDD and how should they be diagnosed and treated? PMS involves 1-4 symptoms or 5 or more physical or behavioral symptoms. PMDD requires 5 or more symptoms with at least one mood symptom like irritability or mood swings. Treatments include exercise, cognitive behavioral therapy, and medications like SSRIs and hormonal contraceptives. Cohort study, 2022 How common are suicidal thoughts and self-harm in people with PMDD? Suicidal thoughts, planning, and attempts are very common in people with PMDD. About 72% report lifetime suicidal thoughts, 49% report planning, and 34% report attempts. Survey study, 2021 Is premenstrual dysphoric disorder linked to suicide risk in women with mood disorders? Women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder who have depression or bipolar disorder are 3.46 times more likely to have attempted suicide. However, this study only included women who already have mood disorders. Case-control study, 2019 Do negative thinking patterns increase the risk of PMS or PMDD? Yes. Women with PMS and PMDD have more negative thinking patterns and process information differently than other women, especially during the luteal phase. Review, 2019 How do brain changes during reproductive transitions cause depression in women? A review of brain imaging studies found that depression related to reproductive cycle changes involves different brain activation patterns than typical major depression. Understanding these differences might help develop better treatments, though the causes remain unclear. Study, 2018 How cost-effective is medication for PMDD? Medication for PMDD improved quality of life and was cost-effective. The choice between escitalopram and sertraline depends on how much improvement is valued. Review, 2018 Do sex hormones cause mood disorders in women at certain times of the cycle? Evidence suggests women with reproductive mood disorders like PMDD have abnormal sensitivity to normal hormone changes rather than abnormal hormone levels. Normal hormone fluctuations trigger mood problems in some women but not others. Lab study, 2018 How does depression affect menstrual function and fertility in women? Women with depression are more likely to have PMS and irregular periods. Depression also appears linked to fewer pregnancies and children. Depression starting at puberty has the worst effects on menstrual and reproductive health. Randomised trial, 2017 Can couples therapy help with severe PMS or PMDD more than individual therapy alone? Yes. Both one-to-one and couple-based CBT reduced premenstrual symptoms and distress compared to a wait-list control, and couple-based CBT added extra benefits for coping skills and relationship quality. This comes from a moderate-sized randomised trial, so results are promising but not definitive. Survey study, 2016 Do women with postpartum depression have different symptoms than women with other depression? Yes. Women with postpartum depression were more likely to report loss of sexual interest and mood changes before their period compared to women with other types of depression. Cohort study, 2015 How common are PMS and PMDD in young women, and are they connected to depression? Two-thirds of young women have some PMS symptoms, about 1 in 10 meet the criteria for PMDD, and women with worse PMS or PMDD are significantly more likely to have depression. Cohort study, 2015 What factors predict anxiety and depression during pregnancy and after birth? Women are at high risk for anxiety and depression around pregnancy and birth, especially those with prior mental health problems or poor social support, though symptoms vary widely between women. Study, 2014 Do women with PMDD lose the normal ability to control pain with emotions? No. Women with PMDD and control women both showed the same pattern: pain was strongest during negative emotions and weakest during positive emotions, regardless of cycle phase. Survey study, 2014 Do women whose depression started early experience more premenstrual symptoms? Yes. Women with depression that started at an earlier age were more likely to have premenstrual symptoms. Because data was collected by recall, we cannot be sure about timing or whether premenstrual symptoms came before or after the depression. Review, 2014 Are mental health problems linked to gynecological conditions like PMS and PMDD? Yes. Anxiety and depression are common with PMS and PMDD and are frequently undetected and untreated, affecting women's work, social and personal lives. Guideline, 2014 What antidepressant should doctors use to treat depression and premenstrual dysphoric disorder? According to expert consensus, a single antidepressant, usually an SSRI or SNRI, is recommended as first-line treatment for most types of depression, including premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Survey study, 2013 What increases depression risk in women of reproductive age? Early motherhood, having three or more children, low education, and high premenstrual symptoms increased depression risk. Overall, 32.8% had depression, but only 10.4% received treatment. Randomised trial, 2013 Do women with depression whose symptoms worsen before their period respond differently to antidepressants? About two-thirds of depressed women report premenstrual worsening, and these women tend to have more chronic depression and medical problems. However, premenstrual worsening does not predict which antidepressants will work. Randomised trial, 2013 Does psychological education reduce PMS symptoms in teenagers? Yes. Psychological education significantly reduced overall PMS severity and reduced anxiety and physical symptoms. Effects on depression were minimal, and the intervention did not improve difficulty in relationships. Randomised trial, 2012 Is the stress hormone system different in women with premenstrual dysphoria? The stress hormone system (HPA axis) functions normally in women with PMD, just like in women without it. This suggests PMD may have a different biological cause than depression. Progesterone increased stress hormones more than estradiol. Randomised trial, 2012 Does continuous birth control with levonorgestrel and ethinyl estradiol reduce PMDD and PMS symptoms? Four studies found that continuous birth control reduced symptoms by 30-81%, depending on study type. However, results varied and a large placebo effect was observed in controlled trials. Cohort study, 2012 Does a history of depression increase the risk of heavy menstrual bleeding? Yes. Women who had a past history of depression were about 1.89 times more likely to report heavy menstrual bleeding. Depression history was not linked to other bleeding problems or premenstrual symptoms. Survey study, 2012 What psychiatric conditions are linked to PMDD in Korean women? About 2.4% of Korean women experience PMDD. Women with PMDD were much more likely to have depression, anxiety, PTSD, alcohol problems, insomnia, and suicidal thoughts than women without PMDD. Cohort study, 2012 How quickly does fluoxetine start working for PMDD symptoms? Very quickly. Fluoxetine improved irritability, sadness, anxiety, and mood swings within hours, with clear daily improvement by the second day. Review, 2012 Is depression linked to hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause? Yes. Depression tied to hormonal changes appears in the same women across three life stages (premenstrual, after birth, and menopause). Transdermal estrogen patches may be more effective as first-line treatment than antidepressants. Review, 2011 Can estrogen hormones treat depression linked to the menstrual cycle? Yes, transdermal estrogen can treat depression linked to the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause by suppressing cyclical hormone changes. The challenge is balancing multiple hormones and managing progestogen side effects. Cohort study, 2011 Do Spanish women seek medical advice for premenstrual symptoms? About three-quarters of Spanish women experience premenstrual symptoms, but only 18.7% seek medical advice. Most did not seek help because they thought symptoms were normal. Survey study, 2011 How common is PMDD in women with depression compared to healthy women? PMDD is much more common in women with depression. 43.1% of women with depression met PMDD criteria compared to only 5.9% of healthy women, suggesting these conditions may be related. Case-control study, 2011 Do women with PMDD have different brain activity patterns? Yes, women with PMDD show a brain activity pattern similar to people with depression, with less activity on the left side of the front part of the brain. This suggests PMDD and depression may share similar brain vulnerability factors. Cohort study, 2011 How common are premenstrual syndrome and PMDD in Spanish women? Most Spanish women (73.7%) experience some premenstrual symptoms, but only 8.9% have moderate or severe PMS and 1.1% meet criteria for PMDD. Cohort study, 2010 Does depression that worsens before the period differ from other depression? No major differences in depression type or treatment response, but women with premenstrual worsening had more seasonal mood patterns and different personality traits (more self-control). Survey study, 2009 Can estrogen therapy help depression that worsens during hormonal cycle changes? High-dose estrogen has shown some success for depression linked to hormonal fluctuations, though standard antidepressants often do not work. Recognizing that depression follows the menstrual cycle or other hormonal changes is key to diagnosis. Non-randomised trial, 2008 Do mood, memory, and food cravings worsen during the luteal phase in women with PMDD? Yes. During the luteal phase, women with PMDD showed significantly worse mood, impaired memory and concentration, and increased cravings for fatty foods compared to their follicular phase and compared to women without PMDD. Randomised trial, 2008 Does taking more antidepressant just before the period help depression that worsens then? Yes. Women who increased sertraline dose during the premenstrual phase showed no worsening of depression at that time, while women on placebo still had significantly worse depression before their period. Case-control study, 2007 Are there genes that increase the risk of PMDD? Genetic variations in the ESR1 gene (which codes for estrogen receptor alpha) appear linked to PMDD mood symptoms, suggesting genetic factors contribute to who develops the condition. This was found in a study of women with PMDD and unaffected controls. Randomised trial, 2006 Do women with PMDD and depression process progesterone differently than others? Yes. Women with prior depression convert progesterone to its active form less efficiently. Women with PMDD and no depression history show unusual patterns of this conversion, suggesting altered metabolic pathways. Cohort study, 2006 Does the hormone change at menopause cause depressed mood in women who have never been depressed before? Yes. In this study women with no history of depression were much more likely to have high depression scores and diagnosed depressive disorders during the menopause transition, and this was linked to changing hormone levels, not just age. Case-control study, 2006 Are hormone-related chemicals different in women with mood disorders during the menstrual cycle? Women with bipolar disorder and major depression had higher levels of progesterone and a related chemical (3alpha,5alpha-THPROG) during the luteal phase compared to healthy women. This difference was present whether or not they were taking medication. Study, 2006 Do women with depression during perimenopause also have premenstrual symptoms? Some do - about 21% of depressed perimenopausal women had premenstrual dysphoria compared to 3% of non-depressed women. However, not all depressed perimenopausal women have premenstrual symptoms. Cohort study, 2006 What increases the risk of depression in the first days after childbirth? A history of mental illness, PMDD, and mood symptoms during late pregnancy all increase the risk of early postpartum depression, though only 6.8% of women developed symptoms. Case-control study, 2005 Is a specific gene (AP-2 beta) linked to PMDD? No. This study found no difference in AP-2 beta genetic variants between women with PMDD and healthy women, suggesting this gene is not a risk factor for PMDD. However, the results should be confirmed in larger studies. Cohort study, 2005 Is PMDD a strong risk factor for postpartum depression? Yes, women with PMDD have a 9.3-fold higher risk of major postpartum depression than women without PMDD. Study, 2005 Do women with depression experience worsening of symptoms before their period? Yes. 64% of women with depression reported worsening of symptoms in the 5 to 10 days before their period. This worsening appears linked to longer-lasting depression. Cohort study, 2005 Do women with PMDD have depression symptoms outside the luteal phase? Yes. Even women with minor or moderate depression symptoms when not premenstrual were about 1.9 times more likely to have PMDD, suggesting PMDD is a variant of depression that becomes worse premenstrually rather than appearing only premenstrually. Case-control study, 2005 Do women with depression have different growth hormone patterns than healthy women across the menstrual cycle? There was no difference in average growth hormone levels between depressed and healthy women. However, growth hormone levels were higher during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle in both groups. Case-control study, 2004 Do menstrual characteristics and pregnancy history predict depression risk? Yes, earlier age at first period, heavier periods, and irregular periods in early menstruation predicted higher depression risk. Women with multiple miscarriages or abortions had 2-3 times higher depression risk. Randomised trial, 2004 Does qi therapy help premenstrual syndrome? Yes. Women receiving qi therapy had significant improvements in negative feelings, pain, water retention, and overall PMS symptoms compared to placebo. Randomised trial, 2004 Does paroxetine controlled-release help PMDD symptoms? Yes, paroxetine CR was more effective than placebo for PMDD symptoms and caused less nausea than regular paroxetine in the first week. This summary reviews multiple well-designed trials. Survey study, 2004 How often does depression get worse before a woman's period? Depressed women had 1.34 more symptoms that got worse before their period compared to other times. Older women were more likely to experience worsening symptoms. Review, 2004 How should PMDD be treated with antidepressants? SSRIs and venlafaxine are effective for PMDD at normal doses taken either every day or intermittently during the luteal phase. Both dosing schedules work at normal doses but low doses do not. Study, 2003 Which SSRI medication costs the least to treat PMDD? Sertraline costs less than other SSRIs for treating PMDD. Paroxetine and citalopram were more expensive; fluoxetine was also more expensive but the difference was less clear. Cohort study, 2003 Does depression affect when women enter menopause? Women with a history of depression may enter menopause earlier than others. Those with more severe depression who also took antidepressants had nearly 3 times the risk of early menopause, though this is based on observation rather than a controlled test. Study, 2003 Does the stress response system work differently in women with PMS across the menstrual cycle? Women with PMS failed to show the normal increased stress hormone response during the luteal phase that women without PMS show. Progesterone, not estrogen, appears to control this stress response. Review, 2003 Do antidepressants work differently in women than men? Some evidence suggests they may. Serotonin reuptake inhibitors appear more effective and better tolerated in women than older types, and estrogen may enhance their effect. However, more research is needed. Survey study, 2003 How many women have PMDD and how serious is it? 3-8 percent of women meet strict PMDD criteria, but 13-18 percent experience severe symptoms that disrupt daily life. The impact on quality of life is as serious as major depression. Cohort study, 2002 How much do genes versus environment contribute to PMS symptoms? Genes accounted for 44% of PMS symptom differences. Genes for PMS overlap with genes for neuroticism and depression but 39% of PMS genetic variance is independent of these traits. Randomised trial, 2002 Does myo-inositol help reduce PMDD symptoms? No, myo-inositol (12 g daily) did not reduce PMDD symptoms more than placebo. Cohort study, 2002 How common is PMDD in midlife women, and what raises the risk? In this large community study, about 6.4% of women who tracked symptoms daily actually met the criteria for PMDD. Lower education, a past history of major depression, and current smoking were linked to higher odds of PMDD, while not working outside the home was linked to lower odds. Cohort study, 2002 How common is PMDD and does it stick around? PMDD affects 5.8% of young women and tends to persist. Most women with PMDD also have anxiety or other mental health conditions, use healthcare more, and have higher suicide rates. Survey study, 2002 What treatments work for depression linked to the menstrual cycle and PMDD? Serotonin-boosting antidepressants (SSRIs) are the first-line treatment for severe PMS and PMDD and consistently work. Progesterone does not work for mood symptoms, despite being widely prescribed. Review, 2001 What is the best treatment for depression and anxiety disorders, including PMDD? SSRIs (a type of antidepressant) are the first-line treatment for most depression and anxiety disorders, as well as for PMDD. Other newer antidepressants are options if SSRIs don't work or cause side effects. Survey study, 2001 Do women with PMS show personality changes during their menstrual cycle? Yes. Women with PMS showed significantly increased personality disorder traits during the luteal phase (before menstruation) compared to the follicular phase. This pattern did not happen in women without PMS. Study, 2001 Do women with PMDD panic as easily when breathing carbon dioxide as people with panic disorder? Yes. Women with PMDD showed panic attacks when breathing carbon dioxide at rates similar to people with panic disorder, and higher than people without these conditions. Guideline, 2001 What is the best treatment for PMDD and depression in women? For severe PMDD symptoms, doctors recommend antidepressant medication combined with therapy. For mild symptoms, therapy alone or lifestyle approaches may work as well or better than medication. Review, 2000 What conditions beyond depression can antidepressants treat? Newer antidepressants including SSRIs have FDA approval for several conditions including anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and panic disorder. Controlled studies also show they help premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Randomised trial, 2000 What predicts whether sertraline will help someone with severe PMS? Your symptom severity during the non-period part of your cycle predicts how well sertraline will work, but depression levels and demographic factors do not. Over 60% of people respond well to sertraline in controlled studies. Review, 2000 How should doctors diagnose and treat PMDD? Doctors should use self-report tools combined with diagnostic criteria and rule out other conditions. Treatment options include exercise, diet changes, antidepressants, anti-anxiety medications, and ovulation-suppressing drugs. Randomised trial, 1999 Does bright light therapy help PMDD symptoms like depression and tension? Yes, 30 minutes of bright white light each evening during the luteal phase significantly reduced depression and premenstrual tension, while dim red light did not. Review, 1999 Do estrogen and progesterone affect mood in women? This review examines how estrogen and progesterone may influence mood and whether severe PMS is caused by a hormone problem, but the abstract does not state what the review found. Review, 1999 Is premenstrual dysphoric disorder a distinct clinical disorder? Yes, according to expert consensus. PMDD has distinct characteristics, clear symptoms linked to the menstrual cycle, and responds differently to treatment than other mood disorders. Cohort study, 1999 How common are depression symptoms in women in their late 30s and early 40s, and what predicts them? About 22% of women aged 36-44 showed depression symptoms. Marital status, smoking, and having children predicted depression risk more than menstrual cycle changes alone. Non-randomised trial, 1999 Can sleep deprivation help PMDD symptoms? Yes, sleep deprivation may help some women with PMDD, possibly by correcting circadian rhythm problems. Women with PMDD showed similar sleep changes across the cycle as healthy women. Survey study, 1998 How does estrogen affect mood and depression? Estrogen affects how serotonin works in the brain. Some women's depression improves with estrogen therapy alone, while others need estrogen combined with antidepressants. Review, 1998 How does estrogen affect serotonin and what does this mean for mood disorders like PMS? Estrogen modulates serotonin in the brain, and this interaction is likely important for understanding PMS and perimenopausal depression. This is a theoretical framework synthesizing existing research, not a new experimental finding. Case-control study, 1998 Do women with PMS have abnormal growth hormone levels like women with depression? No, levels of IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 did not differ between women with PMS and controls, suggesting PMS and depression have different biological causes. Cohort study, 1998 Are premenstrual symptoms inherited, and are they related to major depression? About 56% of stable premenstrual symptoms appear to be inherited. The genetic factors for depression and premenstrual symptoms are mostly separate and not closely related. Review, 1997 Which antidepressants are most effective for premenstrual dysphoric disorder? Selective antidepressants that work on serotonin are consistently the most effective. Most studies used daily treatment, but intermittent dosing needs more research. Study, 1996 Do women with PMDD have different levels of a brain chemical linked to depression? Yes, women with PMDD have lower levels of GABA, a brain chemical, especially during their luteal phase. Those with a history of depression have low GABA in both cycle phases. Randomised trial, 1996 What is premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and what treatments work for it? PMDD is a severe form of premenstrual mood disturbance, separate from milder PMS, and this review reports that SSRIs and treatments that stop ovulation (hormonal or surgical) have been shown effective in placebo-controlled trials. Randomised trial, 1995 Does partial sleep deprivation help PMDD symptoms? Not directly. Women with PMDD improved after recovery sleep (getting normal sleep) but not from the sleep deprivation itself, and placebo effects cannot be ruled out. Study, 1995 Is PMS linked to genes, environment, or personality traits? PMS, depression, and traits like neuroticism appear to share common genetic influences. However, PMS also has specific environmental causes separate from personality traits. Cohort study, 1995 Is premenstrual and menstrual depression linked to pain and menstrual bleeding? Premenstrual and menstrual depression is strongly associated with pain during these times, though the relationship with bleeding is weaker. It remains unclear whether depression makes pain feel worse, pain triggers depression, or another factor causes both. Cohort study, 1995 Does premenstrual syndrome get worse as women age? No. Symptoms actually decreased with age. The worst time for severe PMS was in women's late twenties through mid-thirties, not later in life. Cohort study, 1995 Are depression and difficulty understanding emotions linked to PMS symptoms? In women with PMS who also have depression, yes. Women with PMS but low depression were similar to women without PMS on all measures tested. Review, 1994 Which hormones change across the menstrual cycle? Body temperature and adrenaline-related chemicals change predictably. Prolactin and serotonin may change around ovulation. Thyroid hormones and cortisol appear stable. Survey study, 1994 How do food, serotonin, and mood relate in PMS and other conditions? This review discusses how serotonin, a brain chemical, affects mood and eating in conditions including PMS. It suggests that treatments like antidepressants (SSRIs) and light therapy may work for these conditions because they involve similar serotonin problems. Randomised trial, 1994 Does nefazodone help premenstrual syndrome? Premenstrual symptoms improved significantly in both groups. Improvement appeared by week 4 at an average dose of 245 mg. However, this was an open-label study without a placebo control, so the true effect is uncertain. Randomised trial, 1993 Does fluoxetine help severe PMS symptoms? Yes. Fluoxetine significantly improved severe PMS symptoms in 15 of 16 women who completed the trial, with 8 showing almost complete remission of symptoms. Most side effects were temporary. Non-randomised trial, 1993 Does light therapy reduce depression symptoms before the period? All light treatments reduced depression, but the placebo treatment also worked, so we cannot tell if bright light is specifically helpful. Cohort study, 1993 Do premenstrual changes run in families? In this study of 80 pairs of sisters, premenstrual changes did not cluster within families based on either daily tracking or retrospective reports. This contradicts some earlier research. Survey study, 1993 Are women with menopause distress more likely to have had past depression linked to their periods? Yes, clearly. Women with high distress at menopause were much more likely to report past depression, needing antidepressant treatment, distress from birth control, PMS symptoms, baby blues, and postpartum depression. Review, 1993 Is the PMS diagnosis scientifically valid and clinically useful? The authors argue the traditional PMS diagnosis is flawed because there is no agreed definition, many women seeking help do not fit diagnostic criteria, and there is no consensus on treatment. They propose a three-factor model instead. Study, 1992 What is the psychological profile of women who experience premenstrual dysphoria? Women with premenstrual dysphoria tend to have higher anxiety and mood problems before their period, and many have a history of mood disorders or feel they have little control over their lives. Study, 1991 How does mood change throughout 2 weeks in women with PMS compared to women without PMS? Women with PMS experienced significantly greater mood changes over 2 weeks compared to women without PMS, showing much larger ups and downs in mood from day to day. Cohort study, 1991 What causes postpartum blues (mood changes in the week after giving birth)? A woman's depression history, ability to adjust socially, stressful life events, and estrogen levels after birth all predicted postpartum blues. This suggests postpartum blues is linked to mood disorders, not just hormone changes. Randomised trial, 1991 Do antidepressants help premenstrual symptoms in women with depression? Yes. After 12 weeks, at least two-thirds of women taking imipramine or phenelzine had essentially no premenstrual problems, compared to half of those taking placebo. Review, 1990 Is buspirone an effective treatment for anxiety? Yes, buspirone works as well as benzodiazepine anxiety medications and significantly better than placebo for generalized anxiety disorder and chronic anxiety. It also has antidepressant effects, and it is safer because it does not cause dependence, though it works more slowly. Randomised trial, 1990 What is PMS and how should doctors diagnose it? PMS is a disorder with symptoms only during the luteal phase, with at least one week each cycle completely symptom-free. Symptoms must interfere significantly with normal life. Up to 50% of people who think they have PMS actually have depression instead. Cohort study, 1990 What PMS symptoms do women experience even when not seeking treatment? Most women have some premenstrual symptoms. The most common are depressive symptoms (65%), physical discomfort (61.7%), and fluid retention (53.4%). Only 20.3% had no negative symptoms. Study, 1989 Do other mental health conditions affect premenstrual symptoms? Yes. The study found differences between women with premenstrual symptoms who had other psychiatric disorders and those who didn't. Survey study, 1988 Do depressive symptoms cluster into patterns including a premenstrual syndrome pattern? Yes. Statistical analysis identified five symptom patterns: one matching major depression and another in younger women as premenstrual syndrome. This explains the gap between reported depression symptoms and diagnoses. Study, 1986 Do women with PMS have more mental health conditions than other women? Yes. Women seeking treatment for PMS have higher rates of depression-like mood disorders, extreme fears (phobias), obsessive-compulsive patterns, and alcohol or drug abuse compared to women in the general population. Cohort study, 1986 What are the characteristic mood patterns that distinguish women with and without PMS? The study identified characteristic mood patterns in women with and without menstrually-related mood syndrome. The abstract confirms these patterns differ between groups but does not specify what they are. Survey study, 1985 Are women with PMS mood changes more likely to have depression? Yes, strongly. Women with a depression history are much more likely to have severe PMS mood symptoms, and most women with severe PMS mood symptoms have also had depression at some point. Cohort study, 1984 Can a visual analogue scale reliably measure mood changes related to the menstrual cycle? Yes, a twice-daily visual scale successfully tracked mood changes related to menstruation. In 20 women with self-diagnosed PMS, 40% showed depression ratings 30% higher before menstruation versus after. Survey study, 2026 Why is understanding PMS awareness in teenage girls important? PMS is under-recognized in adolescents and many teenage girls have knowledge gaps about it. Better awareness and education could help young women recognize and manage symptoms earlier. Survey study, 2026 Do emotional regulation and resilience change during the menstrual cycle in women with PMDD? Women with PMDD have much higher depression and anxiety than other women, especially before their period. Their ability to handle emotions and bounce back from stress is significantly lower during that time. Review, 2026 Is premenstrual dysphoric disorder now recognized in the international diagnosis system? Yes. ICD-11 now officially recognizes premenstrual dysphoric disorder as a depressive disorder, with seven new specifiers to describe depressive disorders. Specific guidance for children and adolescents still needs more research. Interview study, 2026 How do eating behavior and mood change during the menstrual cycle in women using birth control? Women not using birth control showed more emotional and compulsive eating in the early cycle phase, while women using birth control pills showed less change. This is a small study of 84 university students. Review, 2026 Can the brain's perception of internal body signals explain premenstrual syndrome? This is a new theoretical idea that PMS may involve abnormal brain perception of internal signals like heartbeat and hormones. The theory has not yet been tested through research. Case-control study, 2026 Are personality traits like aggressiveness linked to PMDD? Women with PMDD had higher aggressiveness and neuroticism than controls, and aggressiveness correlated with irritability severity and brain structure changes. However, these were small findings in a limited study. Survey study, 2026 Does a brain chemical relate to depression that worsens before periods in women with major depression? Yes, during the premenstrual phase. Women with worse depression had lower levels of GABA (a brain chemical) in a specific brain region, but only when tested just before their period. Cohort study, 2024 Do women with irregular periods have more depression symptoms? Women with irregular cycles reported more depression symptoms in both studies. However, in the more rigorous analysis with complete data, the result was not statistically significant, so the link is unclear. Non-randomised trial, 2024 Does luteal phase sertraline treatment affect stress hormones and inflammation in PMDD? Sertraline during the luteal phase changed stress hormone levels in complex ways depending on other hormonal factors, but results were mixed and this exploratory study had no placebo control group. Study, 2024 Can smartwatches detect mood changes in PMDD? A small early-stage study suggests smartwatches may be able to track the mood changes that happen in PMDD, but much more research is needed. Review, 2024 What are premenstrual disorders and how should they be treated? Premenstrual disorders are common and can be as disabling as major depression, but they are often under-recognized and poorly treated. Women with severe forms need multidisciplinary care. Randomised trial, 2024 Does what you eat affect PMS symptoms? Maybe. This review suggests that eating less sugar, fat, salt and alcohol, and more fresh whole foods rich in certain vitamins and minerals, may help, but the researchers say there isn't yet strong enough evidence to give firm advice. Non-randomised trial, 2024 Do women with PMDD detect facial emotions differently? Yes. Women with PMDD symptoms detected negative emotions more accurately and earlier, especially disgust and sadness, and this was more pronounced during the premenstrual phase. However, the study was small and online, so we need to confirm this in larger studies. Review, 2024 Can wearable devices track mood changes in PMDD before they happen? This is a review of existing research, not a new experiment. It suggests that wearable trackers measuring heart rate variability, sleep, and physical activity show promise for spotting mood changes in PMDD, but this has not yet been tested or used in real clinical care. Non-randomised trial, 2024 Can theta burst transcranial magnetic stimulation help treat PMDD? The study results are not provided in this abstract, which only contains background information. Theta burst stimulation may be promising based on its effectiveness for depression. Case report, 2023 Does a combination of maca, progesterone, and magnesium help PMDD symptoms? One woman improved significantly in headaches, cramping, menstrual flow, and psychiatric symptoms within three months. This is one person's experience, so we can't be sure others would benefit. Survey study, 2023 Do women with PMDD have problems with attention and impulse control during the luteal phase? Yes. Women with PMDD show worse attention and weaker impulse control during the luteal phase, with problems getting worse in the late luteal phase right before their period. These problems are linked to impulsivity. Interview study, 2023 Are women overestimating their PMDD symptoms or do they actually have PMDD? Women significantly overestimate PMDD. When women self-assessed their symptoms, 51.76% thought they had PMDD, but when clinically evaluated by a doctor, only 5.88% actually met the clinical criteria for PMDD. Study, 2023 Are testosterone and prolactin levels different in women with PMDD? Yes. Women with PMDD and high depression scores had lower levels of a protein called β-Arrestin1 alongside higher testosterone and prolactin levels in their blood. Survey study, 2023 Does having PMDD make a woman more likely to develop depression? Women with PMDD are not inherently more prone to depression than other women, but how severe their PMDD symptoms are correlates with higher depression risk. Women with PMDD do tend to have more family history of mental illness. Case report, 2023 Can stopping ovulation help severe PMDD when other treatments do not work? Yes. In this case, a woman with severe PMDD symptoms had improvement when treated with leuprorelin acetate and full resolution after surgery to remove her ovaries. This is a single case of very severe PMDD. Review, 2023 How does the stress response system affect depression during reproductive stages like PMDD? The HPA axis, which controls the stress response, changes during reproductive stages and plays an important role in depression risk at vulnerable times like PMDD, after birth, and perimenopause. Past stress and trauma exposure increase this risk. Cohort study, 2022 Does a new questionnaire reliably measure both period and mood symptoms together? Yes, the MAC-PMSS correlates well with standard mood and symptom measures in women with mood disorders, though the study was small. Case report, 2022 Does sertraline help women with severe premenstrual dysphoric disorder? In this case, a 44-year-old woman with severe PMDD symptoms showed complete recovery after taking sertraline for two menstrual cycles, and was able to continue taking it just during the week before menstruation. Survey study, 2022 Does a brain chemical called BDNF predict mood changes in perimenopausal women with depression? Yes. Women with perimenopausal depression who had higher BDNF levels had worse mood symptoms, which differs from typical depression patterns. Case-control study, 2022 Do women with PMDD have different brain structure than healthy women? Yes, women with PMDD have smaller brain volumes and thinner cortex in multiple regions involved in mood control. Brain scans can distinguish women with PMDD from controls with 74% accuracy based on these structural differences. Interview study, 2022 Are doctors correctly diagnosing PMDD or mistaking it for depression or anxiety? All four women interviewed were initially misdiagnosed with depression or anxiety rather than PMDD. The key to accurate diagnosis was recognizing that symptoms followed the menstrual cycle. Study, 2022 What are the symptoms, causes, and treatments of PMS and PMDD? PMS affects 20-40% of menstruating women and causes fatigue, mood changes, and bloating. PMDD is less common but more severe. Possible causes involve hormone changes and brain chemistry. Treatments include lifestyle changes and medications. Survey study, 2022 Does depression or panic disorder increase the risk of severe PMS? Yes. Women with panic disorder had much higher rates of severe PMS (43%) than women with depression (16%) or no mental health conditions (10%). Survey study, 2021 How common are premenstrual symptoms in female medical students, and how severe are they? About 30% have premenstrual symptoms, mostly mild. Psychological symptoms like irritability are more common than physical ones. Cohort study, 2020 Do SSRIs help women with both PMS and depression? Women with both PMS and depression who took SSRIs showed improvement over 6 months. However, the evidence is weak because this was a small study without a control group. Interview study, 2020 How should doctors treat PMDD in women who also have bipolar disorder? Very few studies exist on this combination, making treatment challenging. The evidence suggests treating bipolar disorder first with mood stabilizers, then addressing PMDD symptoms separately, but this is based on treating each condition alone rather than research on both together. Lab study, 2020 Can an estrogen and gene variant cause PMDD-like mood symptoms? Mice carrying a BDNF gene variant developed anxiety and depression-like behavior when given estrogen, similar to PMDD symptoms. Randomised trial, 2020 How should premenstrual syndrome be diagnosed and treated? PMS is diagnosed by tracking cyclical symptoms that appear 2-14 days before menstruation and disappear when menstruation starts. Both hormonal treatments like birth control pills and non-hormonal treatments like Vitex extract have been shown in research to be effective. Survey study, 2020 How common are suicidal thoughts and self-harm in people with PMDD? Very high: 72% reported lifetime suicidal thoughts, 49% reported planning, 42% reported intent, 40% preparing for an attempt, 34% attempted suicide, and 51% reported self-harm. Most also had other mental health diagnoses. Survey study, 2020 How common is PMDD among secondary school students in Ethiopia? 76.9% of students reported PMDD symptoms. But only 7.4% had experienced symptoms for three or more consecutive cycles, which is needed for an actual diagnosis. 13.1% had a family history of these symptoms. Survey study, 2019 Why might depression develop when women stop breastfeeding? This review proposes that hormonal changes during weaning may trigger depression in some women. A brain chemical normally calming anxiety may work differently during weaning, worsening mood instead. Case-control study, 2019 How do PMDD and depression affect pain sensitivity and stress response? Women with PMDD felt pain sooner and more intensely from cold exposure, and had weaker stress responses. Women with a history of depression showed lasting changes in pain and stress response even after the depression ended. Survey study, 2018 What is PMDD and how common is it? PMDD is a serious form of premenstrual distress affecting 1.8 to 5.8 percent of women who menstruate. It is officially recognized as a psychiatric condition, though the exact cause is still being researched. Cohort study, 2018 How common is PMDD in young adult women and what factors increase the risk? PMDD affected 17.6% of young adult women studied in Brazil and was more common in older women and those with lower income. The study relied on women remembering past symptoms, so the actual rate may differ. Case report, 2017 Can a combined oral contraceptive pill help PMDD in women who also have depression or anxiety? One 34-year-old woman with PMDD along with depression, anxiety, and other psychiatric conditions improved on a combined oral contraceptive pill. Her mood, anxiety, menstrual cramps, and ability to handle stress all got better. Randomised trial, 2017 What do we currently know about PMDD? PMDD is increasingly recognized as a serious diagnosis affecting 3-8% of women. We understand its symptoms and how to diagnose it, but we don't yet have enough high-quality research to recommend evidence-based treatments. Survey study, 2017 How common is PMS in adolescents with psychiatric problems and does it affect their quality of life? PMS was present in nearly 4 out of 5 adolescents in a psychiatric clinic and significantly lowered their quality of life. The more severe their PMS, the worse their quality of life became. Interview study, 2017 Is PMDD caused by genes? Probably not much. There is limited evidence that genes cause PMDD, though some genes may play a role. The evidence is stronger for postpartum depression. Case-control study, 2017 Do women with PMS panic more during a breathing test, and does cycle timing matter? Yes. Women with PMS felt more intense panic symptoms during a CO2 breathing challenge, but only in the days just before their period, not earlier in the cycle. Review, 2017 How does the menstrual cycle affect mood and development, especially in adolescents? Menstrual cycle-related symptoms may trigger developmental challenges that worsen mood symptoms in adolescent girls and have long-term effects. Individual responses to hormones vary greatly, so each woman's experience differs. Randomised trial, 2017 Does adding birth control to antidepressants help depression that worsens before your period? Adding drospirenone/ethinyl estradiol to antidepressants did not significantly improve premenstrual depression better than placebo in this small study. Both groups improved similarly. Survey study, 2017 Can women in the midluteal phase suppress their response to negative emotions as well as men? No. Women in the midluteal phase showed greater difficulty suppressing brain responses to negative emotions compared to men, and also reported more distress and effort when trying to suppress their responses. Case-control study, 2016 Do women with major depression or bipolar disorder experience more premenstrual symptoms than healthy women? Women with major depression in remission had more PMS than healthy women, with higher scores for depressive mood, anger, and other symptoms. Women with bipolar disorder in remission had similar PMS rates to healthy women. Survey study, 2016 Do women with PMDD have more difficulty regulating their emotions? Yes. Women with PMDD and PMS had significantly more difficulty with emotional regulation compared to controls, especially those with psychological symptoms. Survey study, 2016 Do women with PMDD also have postpartum depression? Rarely. Only about 11.7% of women with PMDD had a history of postpartum depression, suggesting these are separate conditions even though both involve mood changes. Survey study, 2016 How common is PMDD among female medical students? The study results are not included in the abstract, so we cannot report the prevalence they found. Survey study, 2015 Is PMDD linked to postpartum depression? Yes, strongly. Among women with postpartum depression, 34.8% had PMDD, compared to only 4.9% without postpartum depression. This suggests a hormonal connection between the two conditions. Survey study, 2015 Does changing hormones during menopause cause depression? Changing hormones during menopause may disrupt the body's stress-management system, making depression more likely. This is a theory based on reviewing research, not new evidence from testing. Case report, 2015 How is PMDD diagnosed and treated differently in teenagers compared to adults? A 16-year-old girl with PMDD shows that diagnosis and treatment may need to be different for adolescents than for adults. This case raises important questions but is based on a single teenager, so we cannot yet say what the best approach is. Study, 2015 How should PMDD be treated? Women with PMDD should receive medication treatment if correctly diagnosed. Accurate diagnosis using standard criteria is essential, and treatment should be given by experienced psychiatrists to distinguish PMDD from regular PMS. Review, 2015 Does tanakan help with reproductive dysfunction? Tanakan (a Ginkgo biloba extract) is described as helpful for reproductive dysfunction and other conditions. Case-control study, 2014 Is a certain gene linked to period symptoms and depression around pregnancy? Possibly. Women with depression during or after pregnancy reported more frequent premenstrual and menstrual symptoms, and a specific gene variant (RAI1) was more common in them. Survey study, 2014 What does Asian research show about premenstrual dysphoric disorder? Most research from Asia on PMDD has been prevalence studies documenting how common it is. Asian research on the genetic and biological basis of PMDD remains very limited. Survey study, 2013 Is PMDD common in women with lupus and linked to depression? Yes. 32% of women with lupus had PMDD, and this was significantly associated with major depression (p=0.010). Survey study, 2013 Is a daily symptom tracker reliable for measuring PMS in Chinese women? Yes. The Daily Record of Severity of Problems showed good reliability and validity for tracking PMS symptoms in Chinese women, with stable measurements across two cycles. Case report, 2013 Can severe mood changes around a period be an early sign of bipolar disorder? In one teenage girl, a psychotic episode tied to her period turned out to be the first sign of bipolar disorder. This is a single case, so it cannot tell us how common this is. Survey study, 2013 How common are premenstrual disorders in adolescent girls? About 99.5% of adolescent girls reported at least one premenstrual symptom, and 59% met the criteria for PMDD. This is based on a survey in Iran. Randomised trial, 2013 What treatments work for PMS and PMDD in teenagers? At least 20% of teenagers experience moderate-to-severe premenstrual symptoms. Education, calcium, exercise, and stress reduction help mild cases, but severe PMS and PMDD usually need medication like SSRIs or hormonal contraceptives. Research on teenagers is limited. Survey study, 2013 Are premenstrual symptoms linked to how women experience their body? Yes. Women with premenstrual symptoms tend to focus more on physical sensations in their body, and this may contribute to how severe their symptoms become. Case report, 2013 Can the menstrual cycle trigger hypomanic episodes in bipolar disorder? This case describes an 18-year-old woman with bipolar disorder who experienced hypomanic episodes aligned with her menstrual cycle since the start of her periods, followed by depressive episodes. This shows that mood episodes and the menstrual cycle can be connected in some people. Survey study, 2013 What causes depression during pregnancy, and does PMS increase the risk? Yes. Depression during pregnancy is linked to many factors including premenstrual syndrome. Emotional support from partners and family members significantly reduces the risk. Study, 2012 Does being close to menstruation increase the risk of psychiatric hospital admission? Yes. 37% of women were admitted within 5 days of their last menstrual period, which is significantly more than would be expected by chance. Survey study, 2011 Do all women experience mood changes the same way across their menstrual cycle? No. About 61% of women follow the classic PMS pattern, 13% show mood peaking mid-cycle instead, and 26% have no regular pattern. Survey study, 2011 Do women with severe PMS have more personality disorders? Yes. 27% of women with severe PMS had a personality disorder compared to 0% of women without PMS. The most common was obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Study, 2010 Are women with PMDD more sensitive to how light affects sleep hormones? The study tested whether women with PMDD respond differently to light exposure by measuring effects on melatonin, a hormone related to sleep, at different times in the menstrual cycle. Review, 2010 Does the menstrual cycle make mental and physical health problems worse? Yes. Many medical and mental health conditions get worse at specific phases of the menstrual cycle, particularly during the luteal phase when premenstrual dysphoric disorder (a severe form of PMS) and depression commonly occur. Review, 2010 What is PMDD and how can it be treated? PMDD is a severe set of mood and physical symptoms linked to estrogen that appear during the luteal phase and disappear within one week after menstruation. Treatment with SSRIs (antidepressants) shows promise but works best as part of a multidisciplinary approach. Study, 2010 What is the difference between PMS and PMDD? PMS affects about 75% of women and lasts a week or two before the period. PMDD is a more severe form affecting 3-6% of women, and both are diagnosed by tracking symptoms over several cycles, not blood tests. Review, 2010 Should PMDD be included in psychiatric diagnostic manuals? PMDD is currently in the DSM diagnostic manual, which helps women access treatment. The authors raise ethical concerns about whether this classification has unintended consequences. Study, 2010 Should doctors ask women about how their menstrual cycle affects their emotions and behavior? Yes. Many women experience different feelings and ways of being during different times of their menstrual cycle, but this has been largely ignored by mental health professionals. Asking women about their menstrual experience can help them understand and accept themselves. Review, 2009 How common are PMS and PMDD, and how much do they disrupt women's lives? PMS causes distress in up to 20% of women and severe work or relationship problems in 3-8%. Women with PMDD experience about 3000 days of severe symptoms over their reproductive years. Cohort study, 2009 How common is PMDD among preschool teachers in one city? About 27.3 percent of teachers in this study had PMDD, which is higher than the 3 to 8 percent reported in general. Physical symptoms were the most bothersome. Randomised trial, 2008 Can adding aripiprazole to an antidepressant help premenstrual violence? A single 38-year-old woman with major depression and severe premenstrual violence improved when aripiprazole was added to her SSRI. However, this is only one case, so we cannot be confident it works for other women. Survey study, 2008 Do women with PMS show more sadness in their facial expressions during the luteal phase? Women with PMS showed increased sadness muscle activity in their face during the luteal phase compared to the follicular phase, while women without PMS showed no change. This suggests women with PMS process emotions differently premenstrually. Survey study, 2008 Do genes related to mood and stress change during the menstrual cycle? One stress-related gene (FKBP5) showed lower activity in the follicular phase compared to other phases. Anxiety scores also changed during the cycle, but these two changes were not connected to each other. Non-randomised trial, 2008 Does changing sleep timing help mood in women with PMDD? Wake therapy improved mood in women with PMDD, but changing how early or late they slept did not work by reducing the morning melatonin hormone as researchers expected. Case report, 2008 How do doctors diagnose and treat migraines linked to menstruation? Two case examples show that menstrual migraines are often diagnosed and managed together with other conditions like PMDD or depression. Treatment combines migraine prevention medication, management of mood disorders, and acute migraine treatments. Survey study, 2008 How common is PMDD in African women and what factors are linked to it? 6.1% of Nigerian university students had PMDD. It was strongly linked to depression (17 times more likely), anxiety, panic disorder, painful periods, and a personality trait called neuroticism. Study, 2008 How common is PMDD and how does it affect women's lives? About 5% of menstruating women have severe PMDD with significant impairment in functioning. At least another 20% have clinically significant premenstrual symptoms. PMDD affects romantic relationships, parenting, work, and increases health care use. Survey study, 2008 Do hormone changes during the premenstrual phase relate to mood symptoms in women with mood disorders? In women with bipolar disorder and major depression, progesterone and allopregnanolone levels during the premenstrual phase are linked to mixed mood features and suicidal ideas, particularly in those with bipolar disorder. We cannot be certain because the study is very small. Survey study, 2007 Are personality traits different between women with PMDD and women with major depression? Personality traits are mostly similar between PMDD and depression during the second half of the cycle. Both groups were more likely to show a trait of caution and worry about harm than healthy women, but personality tests could not reliably distinguish PMDD from depression. Survey study, 2007 What is dysphoria, and how is it different from other mood problems? Dysphoria is a complex emotional state combining intense unhappiness and discontent with irritability. It is related to but distinct from other mental health conditions like depression. Study, 2007 Does isolation stress during the luteal phase cause depression-like symptoms in female monkeys? Yes, female monkeys isolated during their luteal phase developed depression-like symptoms in the following cycles. A traditional Chinese herbal medicine reduced these symptoms and normalized hormone and chemical levels. Case report, 2007 Does Fluoxetine taken only during the luteal phase help PMDD in teenagers? Yes. One 17-year-old girl had complete resolution of her PMDD symptoms when she took Fluoxetine 20 mg daily during the luteal phase. This is a single case. Cohort study, 2007 Do women with depression or bipolar disorder experience premenstrual mood symptoms? 67.7% of women with major depression or bipolar disorder reported premenstrual mood symptoms, significantly more than women without mood disorders. The rates were similar between the two diagnoses. Randomised trial, 2007 Do birth control pills help depression that worsens before the period in women on antidepressants? Both women who got additional hormone in the second phase and those who got placebo improved significantly, so we cannot say whether the additional hormone made a difference. Review, 2006 Why do antidepressants work differently for PMDD than for general depression? A theoretical model suggests PMDD responds faster to certain antidepressants (SSRIs) because it involves different brain mechanisms than depression. This framework has not yet been tested. Survey study, 2006 Does the menstrual cycle affect mood disorders? Some women with mood disorders may experience worsening symptoms during the premenstrual period. Evidence is limited and study methods are inconsistent across available research. Review, 2006 When mood changes seem tied to your cycle, is it actually PMDD? No. Many mood and anxiety symptoms tied to the menstrual cycle are not genuine PMDD. When true PMDD occurs, its impact on quality of life is similar to major depressive disorder. Review, 2006 How do birth control pills affect brain chemicals that control mood? Birth control pills reduce neuroactive steroid levels in the brain. Since these chemicals help regulate mood, lower levels might explain why some women experience negative mood symptoms on the pill. Survey study, 2006 What is premenstrual dysphoric disorder and how common is it? PMDD is now officially recognized as a distinct mood disorder linked to the menstrual cycle, affecting an important minority of women, and should be distinguished from regular PMS and depression. Case-control study, 2006 Can disrupted sleep and body rhythms explain mood problems around periods, pregnancy, or after birth? It's a promising idea but not yet proven. Women with depression at these times show a different pattern of sleep and body rhythms than healthy women, though the exact pattern differs by life stage. Review, 2005 How does acute tryptophan depletion help us understand mood disorders? Acute tryptophan depletion is a research method that temporarily lowers serotonin levels in the brain to study its role in depression, anxiety, sleep problems, and psychiatric conditions. Randomised trial, 2005 Can estrogen treat depression linked to hormonal changes? Estrogen affects mood through brain chemistry, but there is not enough evidence to recommend it as a main treatment. SSRIs (a type of antidepressant) remain the standard choice. Survey study, 2005 Does the menstrual cycle affect obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms? Yes, for some women. OCD started at menarche in 22% of women and worsened premenstrually in 20%. It worsened after childbirth in 50% of women who became pregnant. Interview study, 2005 Can doctors correctly diagnose PMDD and depression in gynecology clinics? Gynecologists diagnosed PMDD correctly 80% of the time but depression only 48% of the time. Ironically, they were more confident about their depression diagnoses despite being less accurate. Survey study, 2005 What are the main symptom types of PMDD? The study found that mood symptoms are most important in PMDD, but physical symptoms and feeling overwhelmed are also significant. Since this was a survey of college students in Brazil, the findings may not apply to all women. Review, 2004 Are polyunsaturated fatty acids important for health? Yes. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential nutrients that cannot be made by the body and play important roles in cell function and disease prevention. Study, 2004 Did SSRIs change what people thought of as depression in women? Between 1985 and 2000, as SSRIs became available for PMDD and related conditions, popular media began describing menstruation, motherhood, and childbirth as potential signs of depression. Review, 2004 Could a brain hormone called allopregnanolone explain mood problems like PMDD in women? This review suggests that changes in allopregnanolone, a hormone-like substance in the brain, may be linked to mood problems including premenstrual dysphoria (PMDD), but this is a theory based on existing animal and human research, not new proof. Non-randomised trial, 2004 Do women with depression have abnormal hormone rhythms across the menstrual cycle? Both healthy women and women with depression showed clear daily hormone rhythms that changed with cycle phase, with no significant differences between groups. However, depressed women had higher overall estradiol levels. Case-control study, 2004 Do women with PMDD who experienced sexual abuse have different thyroid hormone levels? Yes. Women with PMDD and sexual abuse history had abnormal thyroid hormone patterns, including higher T3 levels, compared to other groups. Non-randomised trial, 2004 Does serotonin activity change across the menstrual cycle? Yes. Serotonin transporter binding was highest in the late follicular phase (right before ovulation), while serotonin receptor binding was highest in the early follicular and early luteal phases. These changes correlated with estradiol and progesterone levels. Survey study, 2004 How common is PMS and premenstrual worsening of psychiatric symptoms in women with mental health disorders? Very common. Between 52% and 80% of women with anxiety, depression, or panic disorder reported PMS symptoms, and between 36% and 52% experienced worsening of their psychiatric symptoms before their period. Survey study, 2003 Do hormone levels change during the menstrual cycle in women with depression? Yes. Women with depression had higher levels of a chemical called homocysteine in the early cycle compared to the late cycle, and overall higher levels than healthy women. Non-randomised trial, 2003 How many women with PMS want to participate in research studies? Very few. Only 10% of women with current PMS symptoms agreed to participate, and only 22% of those who started confirmed their diagnosis by keeping daily symptom charts. Survey study, 2003 Is how much control women feel over their life linked to premenstrual symptoms? Yes. Women who felt they had less control over their circumstances were more likely to have premenstrual symptoms, anxiety, and depression. Women felt especially out of control during the premenstrual phase compared to other times in their cycle. Review, 2002 Are women more likely to get depression, especially due to hormonal changes? Yes. Women have 1.7 to 2.7 times higher risk of depression in their lifetime compared to men, and hormonal changes around puberty, periods, and menopause increase that risk. Randomised trial, 2002 Does taking extra nefazodone before your period help depression that worsens premenstrually? Yes, all 3 women in the study showed significant improvement with extra nefazodone taken before their period, but not with placebo. However, the study was very small. Survey study, 2002 What medical conditions and lifestyle factors affect menstrual cycle patterns? Several factors are linked to abnormal cycle patterns. Higher body weight, depression, starting periods after age 14, smoking, and a history of difficulty getting pregnant are all associated with changes in cycle length. Review, 2002 Are hormone problems the cause of PMS? No clear hormone abnormalities have been found in people with PMS, even though hormones seem connected to mood. A treatment that stops monthly cycles improved mood, but why this works is still unclear. Lab study, 2002 Does the official list of PMDD symptoms match what women seeking treatment actually experience? The official list of PMDD symptoms matched 19 of 22 most frequently reported symptoms. When other mental health conditions were ruled out, irritability and anger were more common than depressed mood. Cohort study, 2001 Do women with PMDD have weaker bones? No, women with PMDD have normal bone density for their age, no different from women without PMDD. Cohort study, 2001 Do women with PMDD who have never had depression differ from those who have? Women with PMDD and no past depression history tend to be more educated and more likely to have experienced relationship breakdown, but are otherwise similar to women with PMDD who have had depression. Randomised trial, 2001 Do changing reproductive hormones disrupt the body's internal clock and cause mood disorders? The authors propose that reproductive hormones may disrupt the body's internal clock in susceptible women, but this is a theory not yet proven. Women have twice the rate of depression as men. Survey study, 2001 Do women with PMDD have other mental health conditions or personality traits? Most women with PMDD (77%) had experienced other mood or anxiety disorders in their past, compared with only 17% of women without PMDD. Two-thirds of women with PMDD who had children experienced postpartum depression. Survey study, 2001 Do gynecologists feel as responsible for treating depression as they do for treating severe PMS? No. Gynecologists reported different attitudes toward PMDD compared with major depressive disorder, and many did not see treating depression as their job in the same way. Case-control study, 2001 Does breathing carbon dioxide trigger panic attacks in people with PMDD like it does in panic disorder? Yes, people with PMDD had panic attacks during CO2 breathing at similar rates to people with panic disorder. However, this was a very small study with only 10 PMDD participants, so results need confirmation in larger studies. Cohort study, 2001 Does having PMDD increase the risk of developing major depressive disorder? In this small pilot study, 7 of 8 women with PMDD developed major depressive disorder within two years. However, this needs confirmation in much larger studies. Review, 2001 Can mood disorders get worse before your period? Yes. Mood disorders can worsen before the period. This is different from PMDD and PMS but it is not well understood. Review, 2001 Do SSRI antidepressants help treat premenstrual syndrome? A literature review suggests SSRIs could be an alternative treatment for PMS alongside traditional hormone therapy. However, this review does not provide specific evidence or results. Survey study, 2001 How common is premenstrual dysphoric disorder and how is it related to other psychiatric conditions? About 75-85% of women report some premenstrual symptoms, but only 10-15% seek care and 2-5% experience serious disruption to work or social life. PMS may worsen other psychiatric conditions. Non-randomised trial, 2001 Do people with PMDD have different breathing patterns? Yes. PMDD patients showed greater variation in their breathing patterns than women without PMDD. Survey study, 2001 Do antidepressants work for PMDD? Yes, according to this review. Serotonergic antidepressants have shown effectiveness for premenstrual dysphoric disorder, whether taken every day or just during the luteal phase before the period. Review, 2001 Do serotonin drugs help PMDD? Yes. Research supports using serotonin drugs for PMDD. PMS affects 20%-50% of women while PMDD (more severe PMS) affects 3%-9% of women. Survey study, 2000 Does the menstrual cycle affect how much people smoke or how hard it is to quit? Not strongly. Smoking was slightly higher mid-cycle, and withdrawal was worse in women with depression, but the cycle phase did not strongly predict smoking behavior. Survey study, 2000 What is PMS and how is it diagnosed and treated? PMS is physical or mood symptoms in the second half of your cycle that affect your home, work, or relationships. Diagnosis requires medical history and daily tracking. Treatment starts with behavior changes, then medication if needed. Review, 2000 Can SSRI antidepressants treat premenstrual syndrome? Yes, SSRIs are particularly effective for treating premenstrual syndrome symptoms. Survey study, 2000 Does premenstrual worsening of panic disorder increase suicide risk in women? Yes. Women with panic disorder who experienced premenstrual worsening had higher suicide risk scores and were more likely to be considered suicidal than women whose panic did not worsen premenstrually. This was independent of depression. Study, 2000 How does depression in women differ from depression in men, and how can it be treated? Depression is twice as common in women as in men. Women experience different symptoms, different patterns of illness, and may respond differently to treatment. Hormonal changes during menstruation, birth control use, pregnancy, menopause, and aging can trigger or worsen depression. Survey study, 2000 Are women with PMDD more likely to have had mental health problems? This review questions the common belief that women with PMDD have higher rates of past psychiatric disorders. It suggests this assumption may be premature, but does not provide new research to confirm either way. Cohort study, 1999 Do women with PMS have a higher risk of depression later in life? In a 5 to 12 year follow-up study, women with PMS had a nonsignificantly higher rate of new depression, but this difference disappeared when comparing only women who had no prior depression history, suggesting prior depression rather than PMS drives the risk. Study, 1999 Why is depression more common in women than men? Women are twice more likely than men to suffer from depression. This is related to biological, psychological, and social factors, especially during reproductive years when hormone changes occur. Review, 1999 Are SSRIs effective for treating PMDD? Yes, SSRIs are effective in treating PMDD and many related conditions in women, according to this review of depression treatment. Non-randomised trial, 1999 Do women seeking PMS treatment actually have underlying mood or anxiety disorders? About 39% of women seeking PMS treatment meet criteria for mood or anxiety disorders. Mood disorders were about twice as common as anxiety disorders. Review, 1999 Do SSRI antidepressants work for PMDD? Yes, SSRIs are the treatment of choice for PMDD because they are effective, have acceptable side effects, and are well tolerated. Non-randomised trial, 1998 Is there a brain chemistry abnormality in PMDD? The study found some differences in brain chemistry related to mood in PMDD, with early-cycle levels predicting worse symptoms later in the cycle. The sample was very small and the clinical meaning is unclear. Case-control study, 1998 Do stress receptors on immune cells function differently in women with PMDD? Women with PMDD have higher beta2-adrenergic receptor density compared to healthy women. Measurements in the follicular phase predict how severe luteal phase symptoms will be. Survey study, 1998 Does trouble digesting fructose cause depression? This small study found that people who couldn't absorb fructose well had higher depression scores, especially women. But the study can't prove fructose malabsorption causes depression. Non-randomised trial, 1998 Is the stress hormone cortisol different in women with premenstrual depression? Yes, but opposite to regular depression. Women with severe premenstrual depression had low cortisol levels before the period, similar to seasonal depression, while women with mild symptoms had high cortisol. Randomised trial, 1998 Does taking sertraline only during the second half of the cycle help PMDD symptoms? Yes, in this small study sertraline taken only during the luteal phase (the time between ovulation and your period) worked better than placebo at easing PMDD symptoms, but the evidence is weak because so few women finished the study. Survey study, 1997 How are anxiety symptoms and anxiety disorders linked to PMDD? PMDD appears linked to anxiety disorders. Women with PMDD often have anxiety histories, and treatments that work for anxiety also help PMDD, though this is a review of existing research rather than new original findings. Non-randomised trial, 1997 How does body temperature change across the menstrual cycle in women with and without PMS? Body temperature patterns shift during the luteal phase in all women. Women with PMS showed greater daily variation in these patterns, which may relate to symptom worsening. Non-randomised trial, 1997 Is fluoxetine an effective long-term treatment for PMDD, and what happens when women stop taking it? Fluoxetine significantly improved PMDD symptoms in all 20 women after 6 months, and improvement persisted in those who continued treatment. However, symptoms returned in most women who stopped the medication. Interview study, 1997 Is PMDD related to other mood disorders like depression? PMDD shares many symptoms with depression and other mood disorders and is classified with them in diagnostic manuals. However, important differences suggest PMDD is distinct, though its exact relationship remains unclear. Review, 1997 Is PMS classified as a mood disorder? Yes, PMS is listed as one of the common mood disorders seen in women in primary care, along with depression and other conditions. Non-randomised trial, 1996 Does fluvoxamine help premenstrual dysphoric disorder? In this open-label study, fluvoxamine at 100 mg per day improved PMDD symptoms in 60% of women, with the biggest improvements in irritability, anxiety, and feeling out of control. Side effects were mostly mild and temporary. Randomised trial, 1996 Is sertraline better than desipramine for treating premenstrual syndrome? Both medications reduced depressive symptoms. Sertraline appeared to work better overall and was much better tolerated. However, the study was not properly blinded and the sample was very small, so we cannot be certain. Review, 1996 Do PMS, postpartum depression, and menopause share a common cause related to the brain? The hypothesis suggests that when brain estrogen levels fall below a critical threshold, mood and neurological symptoms develop. This could explain why PMS, postpartum depression, and menopause involve similar symptoms, though the mechanism remains unproven. Interview study, 1996 Do antidepressants help treat PMDD and similar conditions? The evidence suggests antidepressants probably help, but the research quality is too varied to be certain. Better studies are needed. Review, 1995 Do PMDD symptoms follow predictable time patterns? PMDD is mentioned as a mood condition with a monthly rhythm, though the abstract does not provide specific findings about PMDD patterns or underlying causes. Survey study, 1995 What's different about women who seek treatment for premenstrual mood changes? Women seeking treatment reported significantly more depression, anxiety, and unwanted negative thoughts than those not seeking treatment. Both groups had similar physical symptoms. The commonly used 30% improvement rule did not distinguish the two groups well. Survey study, 1995 Is premenstrual syndrome related to depression? The evidence suggests yes. Women with PMS are more likely to have had depression, and antidepressants help both conditions. Survey study, 1995 Are certain personality traits linked to PMS? Women with PMS have higher scores on harm avoidance and novelty seeking compared to the general population. These traits are modestly linked to specific symptom patterns. Survey study, 1995 Is depression being missed in women's health care? Depression is twice as common in women as in men and occurs in as many as 21% of women over their lifetime. Doctors often miss it because depression hides behind complaints about other gynecologic problems. Case-control study, 1994 Is the stress hormone system different in women with severe PMS? Yes. Women with severe PMS have altered control of their stress hormone system, with cortisol responding differently to hormonal stimuli, suggesting reduced opioid receptor sensitivity. Non-randomised trial, 1994 Does fluoxetine (an antidepressant) help premenstrual mood symptoms when taken for a long time? Yes, in this study most women improved and about half went into full remission with long-term fluoxetine use, though it was not a controlled comparison. Randomised trial, 1994 Does nefazodone reduce symptoms of premenstrual syndrome? Yes. Women taking nefazodone showed significant improvement in PMS symptoms within 4 weeks. However, this study did not use a placebo control group, so we cannot be certain the improvement was not due to expectancy. Survey study, 1994 What symptoms do teenage girls experience, and do symptoms change during their menstrual cycle? Yes. Girls reported physical and emotional symptoms that were more intense during their period. Girls from the larger city reported more intense symptoms overall than girls from the medium-sized city. Randomised trial, 1994 Does L-tryptophan help premenstrual mood symptoms? In a small uncontrolled study, 13 women improved significantly on L-tryptophan with mild side effects, but because there was no placebo group, we cannot be sure the improvement came from treatment rather than from expectation of improvement. The evidence is weak. Survey study, 1994 Do women with a history of depression experience worse menstrual mood changes? Yes. Women with depression history are more likely to report PMS (31.3%) and their depression during the cycle is more severe and lasts longer. Interview study, 1993 What role does serotonin play in dysphoric PMS? Evidence suggests serotonin activity may be altered in dysphoric PMS, particularly in the late-luteal phase, and female sex hormones may influence serotonin. More research is needed. Review, 1993 Is low brain serotonin linked to mood swings and the weight gain and carb cravings that can come with them? This review argues that brain serotonin plays a role in linking mood changes to carbohydrate cravings and weight gain, and that treatments which raise serotonin activity can improve both mood and eating control, but it is a summary of past research, not a new study. Case report, 1993 Can extreme sleepiness around periods be linked to prolactin and a medication called metoclopramide? In one woman, severe sleepiness tied to her menstrual periods continued even after her periods stopped with metoclopramide, and this sleepiness was linked to high prolactin levels, but this is a single case and cannot tell us how common or treatable this is in general. Non-randomised trial, 1993 Does stopping menstruation with a GnRH agonist reduce PMS symptoms? In women with PMS alone, yes. Six of seven had significant symptom reduction including near-complete relief of premenstrual depression. In women with PMS and depression, the treatment did not help. Survey study, 1993 Is there a biological marker for dysphoric PMS that can be detected in blood? Possibly. Women with dysphoric PMS showed increased receptor binding in blood platelets that correlated with symptom severity, but evidence comes from a very small study. Review, 1993 What psychiatric disorders in women show a premenstrual pattern? Many psychiatric and neurological disorders are more common in women than men and often show a premenstrual pattern of worsening symptoms. These conditions, along with premenstrual migraines, often respond to antidepressant medication. Review, 1993 Does the menstrual cycle affect depression and other mood disorders? For some women who have existing mood disorders, the premenstrual phase can increase vulnerability to severe depression or make ongoing depression worse. The paper reviews evidence for this link. Review, 1993 What mood disorders affect women and how should they be treated? Yes. Premenstrual depression is strongly linked to major depression and responds well to serotonin-boosting antidepressants. SSRIs are especially useful because they have few side effects and are safe even in overdose. Case report, 1992 Can severe depression linked to the menstrual cycle be treated? Yes. One woman with severe psychotic depression that happened every month before her period improved completely with bupropion medication after many other treatments failed. Cohort study, 1992 What role do hormones play in mood problems linked to the menstrual cycle? Hormones can trigger mood problems in a small percentage of women who are vulnerable, often those with a history of depression. The menstrual cycle may act as a biological trigger in susceptible women. Survey study, 1992 Do premenstrual symptoms improve when depression is treated with antidepressants? Overall symptom severity decreased after antidepressant treatment, but improvement was only significant for mood-related symptoms. In 2 women, other PMS symptoms became more noticeable after treatment, possibly because depression lifting allowed them to recognize the pattern. Interview study, 1992 Can eating carbohydrates help ease PMS symptoms by increasing serotonin in the brain? There is evidence that carbohydrates may help ease PMS symptoms by boosting serotonin, a brain chemical that controls mood and eating. Women with PMS who crave carbohydrates may be trying to boost serotonin naturally. Study, 1991 Is the Premenstrual Assessment Form a useful tool for measuring premenstrual symptoms? The tool gives consistent results in different cities, but it may diagnose too many people with premenstrual symptoms, suggesting stricter criteria are needed. Interview study, 1991 Can eating carbohydrates help ease PMS symptoms by increasing serotonin in the brain? There is evidence that carbohydrates may help ease PMS symptoms by boosting serotonin, a brain chemical that controls mood and eating. Women with PMS who crave carbohydrates may be trying to boost serotonin naturally. Randomised trial, 1991 Does fluoxetine help women with late luteal phase dysphoric disorder? Yes. Nine out of 10 women taking fluoxetine improved, compared to 2 out of 10 on placebo, and all who took fluoxetine wanted to continue it. Survey study, 1991 Are women more likely to need psychiatric hospital admission during certain phases of the menstrual cycle? Yes. 47% of psychiatric emergency admissions occurred during the para-menstrual phase (the 4-5 days before and during the start of menses), compared with 22% of hospital staff. This suggests menstrual cycle changes can worsen psychiatric symptoms in vulnerable women. Review, 1991 Can serotonin drugs treat PMS? The abstract mentions that tryptophan, a serotonin precursor, has been used to self-treat PMS, but doesn't provide evidence that serotonin drugs work for PMS specifically. Survey study, 1991 What mental health and social problems do women with PMS have? Most women seeking PMS treatment (67 percent) had a psychiatric disorder, with depression and anxiety being most common. Sexual dysfunction and social problems were also frequent. Interview study, 1991 Is premenstrual depression the same as depression from a mood disorder? For many women with PMS, the depression before their period is similar in type and severity to major depressive disorder, except it lasts shorter. Women with a history of depression after childbirth were more likely to have severe premenstrual depression. Randomised trial, 1990 Does fluoxetine help severe PMS? Yes, fluoxetine at 20 mg/day helped severe PMS. Eight of 9 women improved on fluoxetine compared to only 1 of 6 on placebo, and all women on fluoxetine chose to continue it after the study. Cohort study, 1990 Can premenstrual depression predict whether a woman will develop major depression later? Yes, women whose premenstrual depression scores are higher have a greater risk of developing major depression in the future, and this predictive value holds even after accounting for family history and past depression. Study, 1990 Can the antidepressant amitriptyline help PMS? Yes, in this small family study, seven women with PMS felt better after taking amitriptyline. The results suggest PMS might run in families, especially when depression is involved, but more research is needed. Survey study, 1990 Do women with PMDD have a history of depression or other mental health problems? Yes. 78% of women with PMDD had a lifetime history of other mental disorders, most commonly depression. 29% of those who had given birth reported postpartum depression. Survey study, 1989 Does thyroid disease cause behavioral and emotional problems, especially in women? This review discusses that thyroid regulation problems happen more often in women than men and are often linked to behavioral and emotional symptoms, though it does not present new research findings. Cohort study, 1989 Do women with premenstrual depression have different sleep patterns? Yes. Women with premenstrual depression had more light sleep and less dream sleep overall, but these patterns did not clearly worsen before their period. Study, 1989 Is neurotensin involved in causing PMS? No. Women with PMS had similar neurotensin levels in their spinal fluid compared to healthy women. This brain chemical does not appear to be abnormal in PMS. Survey study, 1989 Do mood disorders affect premenstrual depression and attention across the cycle? Only 8 of 16 women with a mood disorder history actually had premenstrual depression when tracked daily. Those who did showed worse mood premenstrually, but both groups showed the same attention patterns in both phases. Survey study, 1989 Do women's memories of premenstrual depression match their daily mood ratings? Only about half of women who reported major premenstrual depression on a questionnaire showed matching depression in daily tracking. Women with confirmed depression had worse energy and physical pain too. Non-randomised trial, 1989 Can an antidepressant called nortriptyline help with depression that happens before a period? In this very small early study, most women who took nortriptyline felt a lot better, but this was not a strong or well-controlled test, so it cannot prove the drug works. Cohort study, 1988 Do anxiety and depression relate to menstrual symptoms in healthy women? Yes, there was an association between anxiety and depression scores and menstrual symptoms. Nearly half of the women reported menstrual symptoms. However, this does not prove whether mood causes symptoms, symptoms cause mood, or both stem from another cause. Randomised trial, 1988 Does atenolol, a blood pressure medication, help PMDD symptoms? Atenolol improved some symptoms including irritability and mood, but not all symptoms. Women who had PMDD for more than 5 years showed more improvement. The study was very small with only 16 women. Study, 1988 Are women with premenstrual dysphoric changes at higher risk for depression? Yes. Women who report premenstrual dysphoric changes are more likely to have had previous episodes of major depression and are at higher risk for future episodes. They also face increased risk of suicidal, aggressive, or impulsive behavior during the premenstrual period. Survey study, 1988 How do women with PMS differ from those without PMS on mental health? Women with PMS had higher depression and stress than community women without it. Some women without a PMS diagnosis showed cyclical symptom patterns, suggesting they may develop PMS later. Survey study, 1987 What psychiatric conditions are associated with premenstrual tension syndrome? Depression is the main psychiatric condition. Other conditions like anxiety, psychosis, alcoholism, and bulimia may also occur. Treating the psychiatric illness does not necessarily treat the premenstrual symptoms. Survey study, 1987 Do women with severe PMS have different personality and brain chemistry than healthy women? Yes, women with severe PMS have significantly lower levels of an enzyme in their blood (platelet MAO) and higher levels of anxiety, aggression, and emotional instability than healthy women. This enzyme does not change across the menstrual cycle. Study, 1986 Do women with agoraphobia experience worse anxiety before their period? Yes, just over half of the women with agoraphobia in this study experienced worse anxiety before their period. Survey study, 1986 Do severely depressed women experience different PMS symptoms than women without depression? No, not in symptom type. Depressed women reported the same symptoms as non-depressed women with PMS but rated them as more severe, suggesting depression influences how severe symptoms feel rather than changing what they are. Survey study, 1986 Is premenstrual syndrome more common in women with low sexual desire? Yes. Significantly more women with low sexual desire had severe premenstrual syndrome than women without sexual dysfunction. These women also had higher rates of depression. Cohort study, 1986 Can we tell women with PMS apart from women with mood disorders based on symptoms? Not easily. Reported PMS symptoms alone cannot reliably identify women with diagnosed PMS. Women with mood disorders reported fewer PMS-like changes than expected from previous research. Case report, 1986 Can hormone implants help severe premenstrual depression when antidepressants don't work? Yes. One woman with a 5-year history of frequently returning depression that didn't improve with usual antidepressants improved completely after receiving estradiol and testosterone implants every 4 months, and her cortisol level (a stress hormone) returned to normal. Survey study, 1986 Is severe premenstrual syndrome similar to depression? Women with severe PMS report more depressive-like symptoms than those with mild PMS. The study suggests these may reflect underlying depression, but as a survey without medical testing, we cannot be sure. Study, 1985 Is premenstrual mood disorder linked to a history of other psychiatric illness? Women with confirmed menstrually related mood disorder had a clear difference in their lifetime psychiatric illness history compared to women without it. Survey study, 1985 What did doctors know about PMS diagnosis and treatment in 1985? There was no agreement on how to diagnose PMS or what to treat it with, though doctors recognized a link between PMS and mood disorders like depression. Case report, 1985 Does blood lithium level change with menstrual cycle mood changes? Yes. This single woman showed that her blood lithium level changed in sync with her mood swings: highest during depression, lowest during hypomania, even though she took the same dose every day. Survey study, 1985 Do changes in serotonin levels across the menstrual cycle explain mood changes? Serotonin levels change across the cycle, but these changes don't clearly explain mood changes. The connection between the two is more complicated than a simple link. Case report, 1984 Can oral contraceptives help treat premenstrual depression? Yes. One 20-year-old woman was successfully treated for both premenstrual depression and a major depression using an oral contraceptive. Survey study, 1984 Are there biological differences in how depression develops in women versus men? Yes. Women show more abnormal levels of brain chemicals related to depression compared to men. Women also experience mood changes around menstruation and after birth that may relate to these biological differences, but the clinical meaning remains unclear. Study, 1983 Are all premenstrual depressive changes the same type? No, premenstrual depressive changes vary by type, and some types resemble mood disorders, which may help us understand both premenstrual and mood conditions better. Study, 1982 Is premenstrual affective syndrome linked to sexual trauma in psychiatric patients? In psychiatric inpatients, women with premenstrual affective syndrome were much more likely to have abnormal sexual histories, including trauma, compared to women without premenstrual affective syndrome. Study, 1982 Does vitamin B6 help side effects from birth control pills? Research over 15 years shows that women on birth control pills often have low vitamin B6 levels. Taking 40 mg of vitamin B6 daily improved these levels and relieved symptoms like depression, anxiety, and low libido. Survey study, 1981 Could endorphins cause premenstrual and postpartum depression? This is a proposed theory, not proven by research. The authors suggest that changes in endorphin levels (natural chemicals that affect mood and pain) might contribute to depression before the period and after birth, since both endorphins and estrogen drop rapidly at these times. Survey study, 1981 Are premenstrual changes linked to specific types of mental disorders? Yes. Specific types of premenstrual changes were linked to specific types of mental disorders. Premenstrual changes with depression may represent a mild form of mood disorder. Study, 1978 Do estrogen and progesterone help with premenstrual syndrome? Estrogens and progestagens are described as having positive effects on PMS. Without research data, we cannot tell how strong these effects are. Survey study, 1976 Is premenstrual mood problems linked to depression disorder? Yes. Women with a history of depressive disorder were significantly more likely to have premenstrual mood symptoms. Women with other psychiatric disorders were not. Survey study, 1975 Are women with premenstrual emotional symptoms more likely to have depression? Yes, women with premenstrual emotional symptoms were twice as likely as controls to have a history of serious depression and twice as likely to have a family member with depression. This is a small study but with clearer definitions than some earlier research. Show more studies Ask AI about this page Copy prompt ChatGPT ↗ Claude ↗ Perplexity ↗ Google AI Mode ↗ Grok ↗