--- title: Pregnancy and postpartum: 357 studies, explained | Niyora description: 357 studies on pregnancy and postpartum and PMS or PMDD, each summarised in plain English: what was tested, who took part, what they found and what it means. url: https://niyora.com/research/topics/comorbidity-postpartum/ --- - [Niyora](https://niyora.com/) - [Research](https://niyora.com/research/) - [Library](https://niyora.com/research/library/) - Pregnancy and postpartum # Pregnancy and postpartum: what the research says 357 studies on pregnancy and postpartum in PMS and PMDD, each explained in plain English. 26 of them use the strongest designs: randomised trials and systematic reviews. Survey study 116 Review 61 Cohort study 36 Randomised trial 36 Study 32 Case-control study 30 Review, 2026 How well do SSRIs treat PMS? SSRIs like sertraline and fluoxetine are first-line treatments for severe PMS. They work at low doses, are safe with few side effects, and reduce symptoms by affecting serotonin and brain chemistry related to mood. Cohort study, 2026 Does having PMS before pregnancy increase the risk of postpartum depression? Yes. Women with a PMS history were 45 percent more likely to develop postpartum depression within one year after birth, with 5.4 percent of women with PMS developing it compared to 3.8 percent without PMS. Systematic review, 2026 Why do some women experience mood changes linked to their menstrual cycle? Evidence shows these women have normal hormone levels but heightened sensitivity in their brains and cells to hormone changes. This explains PMDD and some postpartum and perimenopausal mood problems, and has led to new treatments. Cohort study, 2026 Do premenstrual disorder and postpartum depression share the same genetic causes? Yes. The conditions share significant genetic overlap with genetic correlation of 0.47 to 0.66. Two genetic locations were identified that affect both disorders, both involving brain response to hormones. Randomised trial, 2026 Does mindfulness training reduce PMS symptoms and fear about childbirth? Yes. Women who completed mindfulness training had significantly fewer PMS symptoms, less fear about childbirth, and better psychological wellbeing than the control group. Cohort study, 2025 Is there a link between premenstrual disorders and autoimmune disease? Yes. Women with autoimmune disease have 12% higher risk of premenstrual disorders, and women with premenstrual disorders have 23% higher risk of autoimmune disease. Cohort study, 2025 Do women with a history of PMS or PMDD have more depression during pregnancy and after birth? Women with PMS or PMDD history had higher depression scores throughout pregnancy and postpartum, with PMDD carrying higher risk than PMS. Case-control study, 2024 Do steroid hormone levels change differently across the menstrual cycle in women with PMDD? Yes. Progesterone rises earlier in the cycle in women with PMDD, leading to higher levels around ovulation and a sharper drop in the late luteal phase. This different pattern may trigger symptoms. Case-control study, 2024 Are premenstrual disorders and postpartum depression connected? Yes, they are connected both ways. Women with premenstrual disorders are 4.76 times more likely to develop postpartum depression. Women with postpartum depression are 1.81 times more likely to develop premenstrual disorders later. Systematic review, 2023 What hormonal treatments have been tested for PMDD, menstrual migraine, and catamenial epilepsy? Hormonal treatments have been tested 56 times for premenstrual mood disorder, 21 times for menstrual migraine, and 8 times for catamenial epilepsy. Combined oral contraceptives were a frequent focus. Review, 2023 What treatments help mental and physical health problems linked to the menstrual cycle? Multiple treatment approaches work including medicines, psychotherapy, and hormonal therapy. An interdisciplinary team approach combining different specialties works best. Cohort study, 2023 Is PMDD a valid medical diagnosis? Yes. PMDD is recognized by the World Health Organization and American Psychiatric Association as a distinct medical diagnosis. Evidence suggests it has real neurobiological basis, though more biological research is still needed to fully understand it. Systematic review, 2023 Does saffron help with PMS, labor pain, and menopause symptoms? Yes, saffron improves mood and reduces psychological symptoms of PMS and menopause, and helps reduce labor pain and recovery time, though limited studies exist. Survey study, 2022 What causes PMS and PMDD and what new treatments are being studied? PMS and PMDD involve changes in hormone sensitivity, serotonin levels, genetic factors, and inflammation. New treatments under research target progesterone receptors and inflammatory pathways. Systematic review, 2022 What increases the risk of depression after childbirth? Premenstrual syndrome is the strongest known risk factor for postpartum depression, nearly doubling the risk. Violent experiences and unintended pregnancy are also strong risk factors. Cohort study, 2021 Does having PMS before pregnancy increase the risk of postpartum depression? Yes. Women with frequent PMS before pregnancy had higher risk of postpartum depression after birth, with the risk rising as PMS became more frequent. Guideline, 2021 How should migraine be managed in women, particularly menstrual migraine? This guideline covers migraine treatment approaches, noting that menstrual migraine, pregnancy, contraception, and hormone therapy are specific considerations. The abstract does not provide specific treatment details for menstrual migraine. Systematic review, 2021 Are there hormone changes that could explain PMDD or depression in women? Yes, women with PMDD have lower estrogen levels during the luteal phase of their cycle, and women with depression have lower testosterone levels. These hormonal differences may contribute to their symptoms. Systematic review, 2019 Is there a link between premenstrual syndrome and depression after childbirth? Most studies found a link between PMS and postpartum depression, though some found this link disappeared when other factors like personality were considered. The connection appears real but may depend on circumstances. Review, 2015 Do hormonal contraceptives have benefits beyond preventing pregnancy? Yes. Combined oral contraceptives can reduce heavy periods, anemia, and PMDD symptoms. Several other contraceptive methods also offer additional health benefits. Randomised trial, 2011 Does phone support reduce stress during IVF waiting? No, the stress scale showed no difference, but women perceived the support as helpful and wanted more. Randomised trial, 2006 Do herbal remedies help with PMS, pregnancy nausea, or hot flushes? Preliminary evidence suggests chaste tree helps PMS, ginger helps pregnancy nausea, and black cohosh helps hot flushes, but the evidence is not strong enough to be certain. Randomised trial, 2003 What complementary and alternative medicines help with women's reproductive health issues? Acupressure helps with pregnancy nausea and calcium helps with PMS. Vitamin B6, ginger, magnesium, chaste-tree berry, low-fat diet, exercise, and fish oil show promise but need more research. Review, 2003 How do menstrual cycle hormones affect the brain and cause mood disorders like PMDD? A hormone called allopregnanolone acts on brain receptors. Changes in this hormone during the cycle may cause mood and behavioral symptoms in up to 20% of people through three mechanisms: direct effects, building tolerance, and withdrawal effects. Review, 1992 Is PMS really caused by hormones? The evidence that PMS is caused by hormones is unclear. Psychological and individualized treatments may work better than hormone treatments for PMS. Review, 1989 Are mental health conditions linked to the reproductive cycle? Psychiatric disorders like PMS and postpartum depression are linked to the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. But research on PMS is still early and many questions remain. Cohort study, 2026 Is wanting to get pregnant linked to worse PMDD symptoms? No. Among full-time working women, wanting to get pregnant was not linked to having PMDD, though it was weakly linked to slightly higher symptom scores. Case-control study, 2026 Does PMS increase the risk of depression after childbirth in women with a history of depression? Yes. Women with PMS had a 45.5% rate of postpartum depression compared to 22.5% without PMS, making it 2.87 times more likely. Survey study, 2026 Do people with ADHD traits have higher rates of PMDD than others? Yes, people with ADHD traits had significantly higher risk of PMDD. People with autism traits did not show a higher risk of PMDD. Cohort study, 2026 Does having worse premenstrual symptoms mean you are more likely to get pregnant? Women with more severe premenstrual symptoms were more likely to get pregnant during infertility treatment, with pregnancy rates rising from 12.7% to 35.0% across severity groups. However, the reason is unclear because hormone levels were not measured. Cohort study, 2026 How do premenstrual symptoms change after pregnancy, and what predicts worse symptoms? Premenstrual symptoms increase modestly after childbirth. Postpartum depression and severe period pain are linked to higher symptom scores. Randomised trial, 2026 Does vitamin D help with PMS symptoms? This review found that low vitamin D is linked to more severe PMS symptoms, and supplementation significantly reduces PMS scores, especially for mood-related symptoms. However, the studies used different doses and measuring methods, so more rigorous research with standardized dosing is needed. Survey study, 2026 Does fear of childbirth explain why women with PMS are more likely to develop postpartum depression? Yes, partially. Fear of childbirth accounts for 31.03% of the effect of PMS on postpartum depression in first-time mothers, and 43.62% in experienced mothers. This suggests PMS creates ongoing emotional vulnerability through pregnancy and after birth. Cohort study, 2026 How do menstrual cycle hormones affect suicide risk in women? A review suggests hormone changes during the menstrual cycle, especially in the luteal phase, may affect brain chemistry and increase suicide risk in vulnerable women. The exact mechanisms are not fully understood. Survey study, 2026 Does a history of mood problems with your period predict depression during menopause? Yes, women with a history of mood changes before their period or depression after childbirth were more likely to have depression symptoms during menopause. Review, 2026 Do PMDD, postpartum depression and perimenopausal depression have the same genetic causes? It's unclear. Researchers have looked at several of the same genes in all three conditions but found inconsistent results. Most genetic research has focused on postpartum depression, not PMDD. Survey study, 2025 Do women with bipolar disorder who had PMS or postpartum depression have worse mood problems during menopause? Yes. Women with bipolar disorder who had premenstrual symptoms are 6.189 times more likely to have mood episodes during menopause, and those with postpartum depression are 2.635 times more likely to have depression during menopause. Review, 2025 Does creatine supplementation help women's health? Creatine supplementation may improve muscle strength, exercise performance, mood, and cognitive function in women. However, most research so far is small and more studies are needed, especially in women approaching menopause. Study, 2025 Can blood markers that predict depression after childbirth also predict PMDD? A blood marker linked to depression after childbirth also showed promise in identifying women with PMDD, particularly during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Cohort study, 2025 Do women with epilepsy show different brain patterns during different phases of their menstrual cycle? Yes. Women with epilepsy showed abnormal changes in brain activity during the perimenstrual phase compared to women without epilepsy, suggesting increased brain excitation during this time. Review, 2025 What do menstrually-related mood disorders and postpartum depression have in common? They share similar symptoms like anxiety, irritability, and depressed mood. They may be caused by similar hormone changes and stress effects on the brain, but more research is needed to understand all the factors involved. Review, 2025 How does progesterone affect mood and brain function? Progesterone influences how your brain processes emotions and manages stress. In women with PMDD, targeting progesterone receptors can improve mood symptoms before your period. Survey study, 2024 How much do Indonesian 9th graders know about PMS and what are their attitudes? Most girls (56.25%) had a positive attitude toward PMS, but only 15.6% showed good knowledge about managing it. Survey study, 2024 Does having PMS or PMDD before pregnancy increase the risk of depression during and after pregnancy? Yes. Women with PMS or PMDD before pregnancy had a higher risk of depression during pregnancy and in the first month after birth. Survey study, 2024 Does having PMS or PMDD before pregnancy increase the risk of depression during and after pregnancy? Yes. Women with PMS or PMDD before pregnancy had a higher risk of depression during pregnancy and in the first month after birth. Randomised trial, 2024 Does sertraline change brain chemicals in people with PMDD, and does this relate to symptom improvement? Sertraline changed specific brain chemical levels (pregnanolone) in people with PMDD compared to baseline. However, whether these chemical changes directly caused symptom improvement was not tested. Cohort study, 2024 Is PMS before pregnancy linked to postpartum depression? Yes. Women with PMS symptoms before pregnancy were more likely to develop postpartum depression at day 7 to 10 after birth, 6 weeks postpartum, and 6 months postpartum. This association was especially strong in women who had been pregnant multiple times. Survey study, 2023 Is a history of PMS linked to postpartum depression? Yes. Women with more severe PMS were more likely to experience baby blues (low mood after birth) and postpartum depression. The correlation between baby blues and PMS was 0.397. Cohort study, 2023 Does COVID-19 vaccination change the menstrual cycle? About 25% of vaccinated people reported temporary menstrual changes, most after the second dose. The vaccines are safe and effective, but the study could not determine whether changes were caused by the vaccine or are normal cycle variation. Randomised trial, 2023 Does estrogen and progesterone around the period help with suicidal thoughts? In 26 women with suicidal thoughts, giving estrogen and progesterone before the period changed some brain chemicals that may relate to suicide risk. This is very early research with a small sample, so we cannot be sure yet. Randomised trial, 2023 Do very low doses of fluoxetine help emotional PMS symptoms? Yes. Low doses of fluoxetine (5 to 10 mg daily) reduced emotional PMS symptoms when taken only before menstruation, with 10 mg being more effective. Survey study, 2022 What are the biggest research gaps in women's health, especially for menstrual conditions? Research is lacking in many important areas, especially communication between women and doctors about health, and support for menstrual conditions like PMDD and heavy periods. There is more research on menopause but not on how to help women manage other conditions. Systematic review, 2022 Does having PMDD increase the risk of depression during pregnancy or after birth? Yes. Women with PMDD have higher risk of depression after giving birth. Evidence for depression during pregnancy is less clear from current studies. Cohort study, 2022 Does depression after pregnancy affect when periods return and how severe menstrual symptoms are? Women with higher depression scores at 6 months postpartum were more likely to have their periods return within 6 months. Women whose menstrual symptoms worsened had higher depression scores, but this wasn't confirmed when adjusted for other factors. Survey study, 2022 Does emotional processing change through the cycle if someone had postpartum depression? Yes. Women with a history of postpartum depression showed depression-like thinking patterns during the late luteal phase, like dwelling on negative self-views and remembering sad information better. Healthy women did not show this pattern. Case-control study, 2022 Are differences in emotional brain activity in women with PMDD related to progesterone-derived neurosteroids? Women with PMDD show greater emotional brain activity during the late luteal phase, and this activity is related to a different balance of two neurosteroids (ALLO and ISO) compared to women without PMDD. Randomised trial, 2022 Does having an irregular menstrual cycle before pregnancy increase depression during pregnancy? Yes, women with irregular cycles before pregnancy were more likely to have depression during pregnancy. Cycle length itself did not predict depression, only how consistent the cycles were. Study, 2022 Are premenstrual symptoms related to postpartum depression in women after birth? Two specific premenstrual symptoms - headache and feeling overwhelmed - were more strongly linked to postpartum depression than PMDD overall. History of depression, being in a relationship, history of miscarriage, and age were also related to postpartum depression. Randomised trial, 2021 Does sepranolone reduce PMDD symptoms? Sepranolone showed benefit for PMDD distress compared to placebo, but the main overall symptom score was not significantly different from placebo in the primary analysis. A follow-up analysis using a longer symptom window showed sepranolone 10 mg was significantly better. Randomised trial, 2021 Does blocking progesterone receptors help women with PMDD control anger and aggression? Yes, according to this study. Women taking the medication had a 93% response rate compared with 53.3% on placebo, and their brains showed stronger activity in emotion control regions. Randomised trial, 2021 Does electroacupuncture reduce PMS symptoms? Yes. Electroacupuncture significantly reduced PMS symptoms compared to placebo acupuncture, and it changed several hormone and brain chemical levels. Randomised trial, 2021 Is low vitamin D linked to premenstrual symptoms? Low vitamin D was linked to two specific physical symptoms, breast tenderness and body aches, but not to emotional PMS symptoms. The evidence is not yet definitive. Systematic review, 2020 Does having PMS before pregnancy increase the risk of postpartum depression? Yes. Women with a history of PMS before pregnancy are 2.20 times more likely to develop postpartum depression. However, the quality of evidence is low, which limits how confident we can be. Cohort study, 2020 Does having PMS before pregnancy predict postpartum depression? Yes. Women with a history of PMS or PMDD were at higher risk for depression after childbirth, especially if they had previous depression. Review, 2020 Does progesterone help or harm women's mood? It depends on the condition. Progesterone's metabolite allopregnanolone helps postpartum depression but may trigger negative symptoms in women with PMS and PMDD. More research is needed. Randomised trial, 2020 Do steroid metabolites differ between women with PMDD and those without? Yes. Women with PMDD show different patterns of certain steroid metabolites, particularly sulfated forms, which may relate to how their bodies process hormones. Review, 2019 How does the menstrual cycle affect migraine in women? Hormone changes during the menstrual cycle affect migraine. Menstrual migraine has long attacks and is difficult to treat. Review, 2019 How do brain changes during reproductive transitions cause depression in women? A review of brain imaging studies found that depression related to reproductive cycle changes involves different brain activation patterns than typical major depression. Understanding these differences might help develop better treatments, though the causes remain unclear. Cohort study, 2018 Can the premenstrual feelings women get tell us whether ovulation actually occurred? No. While 89% of women reported premenstrual feelings that helped them predict their period, these symptoms did not reliably show whether ovulation actually happened. Lab study, 2018 How does depression affect menstrual function and fertility in women? Women with depression are more likely to have PMS and irregular periods. Depression also appears linked to fewer pregnancies and children. Depression starting at puberty has the worst effects on menstrual and reproductive health. Study, 2017 Which pregnant women are most likely to feel sick during caesarean delivery under regional anaesthesia? Women who had severe nausea in early pregnancy, a history of motion sickness, and a history of premenstrual syndrome experienced higher rates of nausea during the surgery. Randomised trial, 2017 Do hormones process differently in women with PMDD? Women with PMDD process certain sulfated steroid hormones differently than others, especially estradiol and DHEA metabolites. The study was very small and tested only women who were known to be hormone-sensitive, so the findings may not apply to all PMDD. Randomised trial, 2017 Does Sepranolone reduce symptoms of severe premenstrual syndrome (PMDD)? Yes, Sepranolone reduced PMDD symptoms significantly more than placebo, with severe symptom scores dropping by 75% compared to 47% for placebo in women who completed treatment correctly. However, implementation challenges limit confidence in the results. Survey study, 2016 Do women with postpartum depression have different symptoms than women with other depression? Yes. Women with postpartum depression were more likely to report loss of sexual interest and mood changes before their period compared to women with other types of depression. Review, 2016 How do reproductive hormones affect mood and behavior in women? Reproductive hormones are powerful regulators of mood and behavior. Changes in hormone levels during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause can trigger mood problems in women who are biologically sensitive to these changes. Survey study, 2015 Does childhood stress cause menstrual cycle problems and lower fertility? Women who experienced more childhood adversity had increased risk of fertility problems and missing periods. For each additional adverse experience, fertility risk rose 9% and missing periods 7%. Review, 2015 Does a progesterone metabolite called allopregnanolone cause mood problems in PMDD? In some women with PMDD, the progesterone metabolite allopregnanolone is linked to negative mood during the luteal phase, despite being expected to be calming. A preliminary clinical trial of a blocking agent called isoallopregnanolone showed good effects in treating PMDD symptoms. Cohort study, 2015 What factors predict anxiety and depression during pregnancy and after birth? Women are at high risk for anxiety and depression around pregnancy and birth, especially those with prior mental health problems or poor social support, though symptoms vary widely between women. Survey study, 2015 Is neck and shoulder pain common after birth, and what increases the risk? Yes, 73.1% of women had neck and shoulder pain one month after birth. Women who had previous PMS, anemia during pregnancy, more breastfeeding, and worse mood had higher rates, though this is observational so causation is not proven. Survey study, 2014 Do women whose depression started early experience more premenstrual symptoms? Yes. Women with depression that started at an earlier age were more likely to have premenstrual symptoms. Because data was collected by recall, we cannot be sure about timing or whether premenstrual symptoms came before or after the depression. Guideline, 2014 What antidepressant should doctors use to treat depression and premenstrual dysphoric disorder? According to expert consensus, a single antidepressant, usually an SSRI or SNRI, is recommended as first-line treatment for most types of depression, including premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Case-control study, 2013 Are stress hormones different in women with PMDD? Overall stress hormone patterns are similar in PMDD and healthy women, but those with high allopregnanolone (a progesterone derivative) show blunted nighttime cortisol levels. Survey study, 2013 Does having PMS or PMDD increase the risk of postpartum depression? Yes. Women with a history of PMS or PMDD are nearly twice as likely to develop postpartum depression. Survey study, 2013 What increases depression risk in women of reproductive age? Early motherhood, having three or more children, low education, and high premenstrual symptoms increased depression risk. Overall, 32.8% had depression, but only 10.4% received treatment. Non-randomised trial, 2013 Does menstrual cycle phase affect protective hormones during smoking cessation? Yes. Allopregnanolone (a hormone related to progesterone) decreased by 10% during smoking cessation in the follicular phase but increased by 31% in the luteal phase, which may explain why the luteal phase is better for quitting smoking. Survey study, 2013 Do past PMS symptoms predict how severe your menopause symptoms will be? Yes. Women with more severe pain, concentration problems, or water retention during the premenstrual phase were more likely to have severe physical symptoms during menopause. Cohort study, 2013 If a woman has bad symptoms before her period, does she also have more symptoms in early pregnancy? Yes, women with worse premenstrual symptoms, especially irritability, also had more symptoms in early pregnancy (weeks 10-12), suggesting that some women may be sensitive to hormonal changes across reproductive phases. Cohort study, 2013 Does having PMS or PMDD before pregnancy increase the risk of postpartum depression? Yes. Women with a history of PMS or PMDD were more likely to develop postpartum depression, especially those who had been pregnant before. The link was confirmed at 5 days, 6 weeks, and 6 months after birth. Review, 2012 Is depression linked to hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause? Yes. Depression tied to hormonal changes appears in the same women across three life stages (premenstrual, after birth, and menopause). Transdermal estrogen patches may be more effective as first-line treatment than antidepressants. Review, 2011 Can estrogen hormones treat depression linked to the menstrual cycle? Yes, transdermal estrogen can treat depression linked to the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause by suppressing cyclical hormone changes. The challenge is balancing multiple hormones and managing progestogen side effects. Review, 2011 What health benefits do birth control pills have? Birth control pills reduce symptoms of heavy periods and period pain, lower PMDD symptoms, reduce acne, and lower the risk of ovarian and endometrial cancer. Modern pills have lower estrogen doses than older ones and carry less cardiovascular risk. Review, 2010 Can neurosteroids help with anxiety and brain disorders? The review suggests neurosteroids might help with anxiety, epilepsy, and depression, but clinical evidence is limited. Study, 2010 Does pregnancy or menstruation affect OCD symptoms? Yes. About 1 in 3 women with OCD saw symptoms start during pregnancy or after birth. Women whose OCD began during this time are more likely to have worsening with their period. Case-control study, 2010 Do lesbian and bisexual women have different reproductive health than heterosexual women? The study found that lesbian and bisexual women had less gynecological screening and more sexually transmitted infections, but response rate differences may have affected the findings. Survey study, 2009 Can estrogen therapy help depression that worsens during hormonal cycle changes? High-dose estrogen has shown some success for depression linked to hormonal fluctuations, though standard antidepressants often do not work. Recognizing that depression follows the menstrual cycle or other hormonal changes is key to diagnosis. Study, 2009 Does evening primrose oil help treat PMS? No. Based on current evidence, evening primrose oil is likely ineffective for PMS. Most studies to date have had major methodologic flaws. Survey study, 2008 How common is menstrual migraine, and does pregnancy affect it? Menstrual migraine is common among women with migraines, affecting 18% when counting only those with migraine exclusively during their period. In women who became pregnant, migraine usually improved. Survey study, 2007 Is depression before a period linked to depression at menopause? Yes. Women who were depressed premenstrually also tend to be depressed around menopause, suggesting a shared cause that may involve hormones, psychology, or both. This link held regardless of age or hormone therapy use. Cohort study, 2007 Does regular aerobic exercise help reduce premenstrual symptoms? Yes. Women who exercised regularly had fewer premenstrual symptoms, especially pain and water retention, compared to sedentary women. Exercise also lowered some hormone levels related to premenstrual symptoms. Randomised trial, 2007 Do extended-cycle birth control pills reduce PMS symptoms compared to regular pills? Yes. Switching from regular birth control pills (21 days on, 7 days off) to extended-cycle pills (minimal pill-free time) significantly reduced PMS symptoms, especially in women with more symptoms to start with. Review, 2006 How do brain hormones affect PMDD and mood problems during the menstrual cycle? Probably yes. Brain hormones that change during the menstrual cycle may trigger mood problems in PMDD by working similarly to anti-anxiety drugs. PMDD affects 2-6% of reproductive women. Randomised trial, 2006 Do women with PMDD and depression process progesterone differently than others? Yes. Women with prior depression convert progesterone to its active form less efficiently. Women with PMDD and no depression history show unusual patterns of this conversion, suggesting altered metabolic pathways. Cohort study, 2006 Does having depression in the past affect stress hormone responses in women with PMDD? Yes. Women with a history of depression showed reduced stress hormone responses, and this was linked to more severe premenstrual symptoms specifically in women with PMDD and depression history. Case-control study, 2006 Are hormone-related chemicals different in women with mood disorders during the menstrual cycle? Women with bipolar disorder and major depression had higher levels of progesterone and a related chemical (3alpha,5alpha-THPROG) during the luteal phase compared to healthy women. This difference was present whether or not they were taking medication. Cohort study, 2006 What increases the risk of depression in the first days after childbirth? A history of mental illness, PMDD, and mood symptoms during late pregnancy all increase the risk of early postpartum depression, though only 6.8% of women developed symptoms. Cohort study, 2005 Is PMDD a strong risk factor for postpartum depression? Yes, women with PMDD have a 9.3-fold higher risk of major postpartum depression than women without PMDD. Randomised trial, 2005 Does a low dose of alcohol change allopregnanolone, a brain chemical linked to PMDD? During the late cycle phase, a small dose of intravenous alcohol decreased allopregnanolone levels in both women with severe PMS and control women, but this did not happen during the early cycle phase. This is moderate evidence, but the study is small and used an unnatural way of giving alcohol. Case-control study, 2004 Do women with PMS have different hormone levels than women without PMS? Yes. Women with PMS have significantly lower allopregnanolone in the second half of their cycle, plus higher free testosterone and higher DHEA. These hormone differences may explain why they experience mood changes, anxiety, aggression, and irritability. Case-control study, 2004 Do menstrual characteristics and pregnancy history predict depression risk? Yes, earlier age at first period, heavier periods, and irregular periods in early menstruation predicted higher depression risk. Women with multiple miscarriages or abortions had 2-3 times higher depression risk. Review, 2004 How should PMDD be treated with antidepressants? SSRIs and venlafaxine are effective for PMDD at normal doses taken either every day or intermittently during the luteal phase. Both dosing schedules work at normal doses but low doses do not. Review, 2003 Do GABA receptors and progesterone affect PMDD? The review suggests they may be important based on animal studies, but does not provide specific conclusions about their role in PMDD in humans. Review, 2003 Does bipolar disorder affect women differently than men? Yes. Bipolar disorder often starts later in women, who experience more depressive episodes and rapid mood cycling. The postpartum period is high-risk for onset or recurrence. Cohort study, 2003 How does the menstrual cycle affect women's sleep? We cannot yet draw clear conclusions because existing studies are small and use different methods. However, sleep is almost always disrupted during pregnancy and postpartum, and menopause often causes insomnia. Review, 2003 What role do hormones play in PMS and how should we treat it? Female hormones trigger PMS by affecting brain chemistry, especially the serotonin and GABA systems. SSRIs and medications that stop ovulation are the most effective treatments. Randomised trial, 2002 Does the hormone allopregnanolone relate to how well antidepressants work for severe PMS? Women whose PMS improved on antidepressants had significantly lower allopregnanolone levels than those who didn't improve. This is preliminary evidence but suggests allopregnanolone may play a role in treatment response. Review, 2002 Does the new oral contraceptive Yasmin improve premenstrual symptoms and well-being? Yes. Women with premenstrual symptoms who took Yasmin showed improved well-being scores and fewer physical symptoms compared to before starting the medication. Review, 2002 What are the reproductive-related mood disorders and how are they connected? Mood and anxiety disorders are more common in women around menstruation, after childbirth, and during perimenopause. They all appear linked to changes in ovarian hormones. Survey study, 2002 What treatments work for depression linked to the menstrual cycle and PMDD? Serotonin-boosting antidepressants (SSRIs) are the first-line treatment for severe PMS and PMDD and consistently work. Progesterone does not work for mood symptoms, despite being widely prescribed. Review, 2001 What is the best treatment for depression and anxiety disorders, including PMDD? SSRIs (a type of antidepressant) are the first-line treatment for most depression and anxiety disorders, as well as for PMDD. Other newer antidepressants are options if SSRIs don't work or cause side effects. Review, 2001 What health benefits does the oral contraceptive pill provide? The oral contraceptive pill has proven benefits including protection against ovarian and endometrial cancers, preventing serious infections and pregnancy complications, and preventing anemia. It can also treat painful periods, heavy bleeding, acne, and endometriosis pain. Guideline, 2001 What is the best treatment for PMDD and depression in women? For severe PMDD symptoms, doctors recommend antidepressant medication combined with therapy. For mild symptoms, therapy alone or lifestyle approaches may work as well or better than medication. Randomised trial, 2000 Is drospirenone-based birth control as effective as desogestrel-based, and which is better tolerated? Both prevent pregnancy equally well. The drospirenone-based pill caused less weight gain and reduced PMS symptoms more during treatment. Case-control study, 2000 Do women with PMS have different hormone levels than women without PMS? Yes. Women with PMS have significantly lower levels of allopregnanolone and progesterone, especially during the second half of the menstrual cycle. Their bodies also showed a weaker response to a hormone stimulation test. Cohort study, 2000 Does progesterone affect REM sleep and mood? Yes. During the menstrual cycle, women with high progesterone had more REM sleep and better mood. After birth, when progesterone drops, sleep patterns change but mood seems related more to overall sleep disruption than to progesterone changes alone. Survey study, 1998 How does estrogen affect mood and depression? Estrogen affects how serotonin works in the brain. Some women's depression improves with estrogen therapy alone, while others need estrogen combined with antidepressants. Study, 1998 How do stress and stress chemicals relate to premenstrual symptoms? Stress and stress-related chemicals in the body are linked to premenstrual mood and fluid retention symptoms, but the relationships differ depending on whether a woman has PMS or premenstrual magnification. Case-control study, 1998 Do women with PMS respond differently to a neuroactive steroid than women without PMS? Yes, they do. Women with PMS show reduced response to pregnanolone in the luteal phase compared to women without PMS, particularly those with severe PMS. Cohort study, 1997 Are premenstrual mood changes linked to depression and anxiety during pregnancy and after childbirth? Yes. Women with premenstrual irritability before pregnancy had higher depression scores throughout pregnancy and after birth, plus greater anxiety about pregnancy, delivery, and their babies. Randomised trial, 1996 Does oral progesterone work better than vaginal progesterone for PMS? No. Both oral and vaginal progesterone were no better than placebo for PMS symptoms, even though oral progesterone created higher levels of potentially calming metabolites. Survey study, 1996 How common is infertility in older women and what conditions are linked to it? Permanent infertility affects 2.6% of women aged 40-42, and subfertility affects 7.7%. Premenstrual tension is more common in infertile women (almost 40%) than in fertile women (29.4%). Randomised trial, 1995 Do vaginal progesterone suppositories relieve PMS symptoms? Overall PMS scores were not significantly better with progesterone than placebo, but a specific group of 'nervous' symptoms, tension, mood swings, irritability, anxiety and lack of control, did improve significantly. Survey study, 1994 Does sexual interest change across the menstrual cycle and relate to hormone levels? Yes, sexual interest is significantly higher in the follicular and ovulatory phases than in the luteal and premenstrual phases, but this pattern is not explained by estrogen or progesterone levels. Study, 1993 Do women with PMS have different hormone levels during their menstrual cycle? Overall, hormone levels are similar in women with and without PMS, but the peak of progesterone happens later in women with PMS. Cohort study, 1993 When are new mothers most likely to get depression - right after birth or later? Depression peaked at 10 weeks after birth, not immediately afterward. PMS before pregnancy was only linked to postpartum depression once women's periods restarted. Survey study, 1993 Are women with menopause distress more likely to have had past depression linked to their periods? Yes, clearly. Women with high distress at menopause were much more likely to report past depression, needing antidepressant treatment, distress from birth control, PMS symptoms, baby blues, and postpartum depression. Randomised trial, 1991 Does troxerutin help with blood vessel problems related to PMS? Yes, according to this double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Women taking high-dose troxerutin showed marked improvement in symptoms within one month, with benefits lasting through four months of treatment. Randomised trial, 1991 Does taking a placebo pill reduce PMS symptoms? This study found that placebo significantly reduced PMS symptoms during 3 months of treatment. However, individual women responded very differently, and without an active comparison group it's unclear if improvement was due to the placebo effect or other factors. Cohort study, 1991 What causes postpartum blues (mood changes in the week after giving birth)? A woman's depression history, ability to adjust socially, stressful life events, and estrogen levels after birth all predicted postpartum blues. This suggests postpartum blues is linked to mood disorders, not just hormone changes. Survey study, 1989 Is a history of bad premenstrual tension linked to low mood after giving birth? Yes. Women who reported having bad premenstrual tension in the past were more likely to have low mood scores in the days after giving birth. Survey study, 1988 Do women with PMS have higher rates of postpartum depression and birth control side effects? Yes. Among women who had given birth, 62.6% of those with PMS had experienced postpartum depression compared to 41.4% without PMS. Among those with postpartum depression, 69.8% of PMS patients reported birth control side effects compared to 38.9% of controls. Review, 1988 How do reproductive hormones affect mood across a woman's life? This review examines mood and behavioral changes linked to hormone shifts during the menstrual cycle, birth control use, pregnancy, postpartum period, and perimenopause. It recommends better ways to measure and report symptoms. Study, 1987 How common is PMS in African women in Niger, and does education or urban living affect it? PMS is very common: only 5% of the 400 women had no symptoms, with 31% experiencing severe symptoms that disrupted daily life. Symptoms were more common and severe in urban, literate women than in rural women, likely due to different pregnancy and breast-feeding patterns. Study, 1984 Do women with premenstrual tension have different hormone patterns? Yes. Women with premenstrual tension had measurable differences in their hormone patterns compared to women without the condition. Study, 1982 Can very small doses of progesterone clear premenstrual symptoms? Yes. In women with PMS, 96% had symptoms completely or almost completely clear within 30 minutes when given a dose of progesterone determined by skin testing. Review, 1977 Why do women have higher rates of depression than men? Women in the US and other countries show higher depression rates than men. This may be due to biological factors like hormones or genetics, or psychological factors like discrimination, but the exact cause is unclear. Study, 1975 Does suppressing prolactin affect how the menstrual cycle works? No clear difference was found. When prolactin was suppressed to low levels, the menstrual cycle continued with the same pattern of hormonal changes. Survey study, 2026 Do women with ADHD have worse menstrual, pregnancy, and menopause symptoms? Yes, in this large survey women with ADHD reported significantly more menstrual irregularity, worse premenstrual symptoms, higher postpartum depression, and more severe menopausal symptoms than women without ADHD. Survey study, 2026 Why do some women's moods react strongly to hormone changes across the cycle while others don't? This review explains that 'hormone sensitivity' is not one single thing but many, and that while most women are not strongly affected by hormone swings, some are much more sensitive, especially those with existing mood disorders; the exact reasons are still being studied. Systematic review, 2026 Does childhood trauma increase the risk for PMS, PMDD, and related mood disorders? Yes, childhood trauma appears to increase the risk for these mood disorders. Emotional abuse in childhood was most strongly linked. Childhood trauma may make women more sensitive to hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle. Survey study, 2026 Could hormonal changes and immune problems explain menstrual issues in autistic women? This paper proposes that autistic women may experience severe menstrual and reproductive health problems because their immune cells react strongly to hormonal changes during menstruation and pregnancy. This proposed connection has not yet been tested. Survey study, 2026 Do suicidal thoughts change across the menstrual cycle? The study found no clear pattern of suicidal thoughts changing with cycle phases. However, feelings like depression, anger, and irritability (which do vary across the cycle) were linked to suicidal thoughts. Survey study, 2026 Do difficult childhood experiences lead to worse PMS symptoms as an adult? Yes. Among 399 university students in Türkiye, 71.7% had PMS symptoms, and those who reported difficult childhood experiences had worse PMS symptoms. Difficult childhood experiences and worse PMS were clearly linked. Survey study, 2026 Does PMS affect how well young women sleep? This study set out to check whether premenstrual syndrome is linked to poorer sleep in women aged 18 to 25, but the text available here only describes the background and methods, not the actual results, so no clear answer can be given from what is provided. Survey study, 2026 Should PMDD be recognized in Indian law as affecting criminal responsibility? The analysis concludes that PMDD should be legally recognized in India as affecting judgment and behavior. Modern medicine recognizes PMDD as serious, but Indian criminal law currently does not acknowledge it. Study, 2026 How do brain chemicals relate to PMDD and what treatments can help? PMDD affects 3% to 8% of menstruating people and involves a brain chemical imbalance. Several treatments work, including antidepressants, new specific medications, birth control pills, and some herbal remedies. Case-control study, 2026 What role do brain chemicals called neurosteroids play in PMDD? A key brain chemical called allopregnanolone likely triggers PMDD symptoms in vulnerable women. It acts as a sedative at high levels but can cause anxiety and irritability at lower levels in some people. Randomised trial, 2026 Can a short, simple hormone test spot women whose mood is especially sensitive to hormone changes? A quick 7-day hormone test gave similar results to a much longer 4-month test in identifying hormone-sensitive women, but this was a very small pilot study, so it's an early, promising sign rather than a settled answer. Survey study, 2026 How do hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle affect sleep? Hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle affect sleep quality. Women with PMS or PMDD often have poor sleep and daytime fatigue. During menopause, 40 to 60 out of 100 women have sleep problems due to falling estrogen and hot flashes. Survey study, 2026 Are PMS and depression connected in nursing students? 38.9% had moderate-to-severe PMS and 12.2% had PMDD. Depression was slightly more common in women with PMS (54.3% vs 47.3%), but this difference was not statistically significant. Study, 2026 Could early stress or past trauma make PMDD symptoms worse later in the cycle? This research offers a possible explanation for why PMDD symptoms vary so much, and why related conditions can worsen before a period. It is only a theory, not tested on patients, so we don't yet know if it is true. Survey study, 2025 Does eating fewer calories affect sleep during the menstrual cycle? Yes. Eating 55% fewer calories disrupts sleep in healthy young women, especially in the late luteal phase when hormone levels are higher. Survey study, 2025 Is dysphoric milk ejection reflex similar to PMDD? Dysphoric milk ejection reflex is a condition where women feel sad, anxious, or agitated when breastfeeding for up to 5 minutes at a time. It affects 6-27% of breastfeeding women and may be caused by hormonal changes, similar to PMDD. Survey study, 2025 Is PMS linked to fear of childbirth in first-time pregnant women? Yes, nearly half of first-time pregnant women experienced fear of childbirth, and PMS showed a moderate link to it. Poor sleep, weak support, and relationship problems also mattered. Interview study, 2025 Can hormones from the menstrual cycle cause sacroiliac joint inflammation? It is possible but not yet proven. This review suggests that hormone changes during the late menstrual cycle might temporarily cause inflammation in sacroiliac joints, especially in women with PCOS. Survey study, 2025 Do menstrual cycle phase and symptoms affect sleep in female footballers? Menstrual cycle phase alone did not affect sleep. But more menstrual symptoms were linked to later bedtimes, longer total sleep, and more time awake. Case-control study, 2025 Do certain hormone-related brain chemicals predict how bad premenstrual depression and anxiety will be? In this small study, women with a PMDD-like condition had higher levels of a calming hormone (allopregnanolone) early in the cycle, and higher levels of it predicted worse later depression and anxiety. The sample is small, so this is an early finding, not a proven cause. Survey study, 2025 How do hormonal changes affect ADHD symptoms in women? Hormonal changes significantly impact women with ADHD. Symptoms may get worse during certain parts of the menstrual cycle and after childbirth, often with mood and sleep problems. Review, 2025 Can estrogen and progesterone be used to treat mood disorders in women? This review discusses how female hormones affect the brain and may play a role in mood disorders like PMDD. It does not provide specific findings about whether hormone treatment works. Survey study, 2024 Did a teaching program help adolescent girls learn about managing PMS? The program taught management strategies including healthy eating, exercise, reduced salt and sugar, increased fiber, and adequate sleep. Survey study, 2024 Are women with a history of PMS or PMDD more likely to develop depression during pregnancy? Yes. Women with PMDD were 3.54 times more likely to have depression during pregnancy, and those with PMS were 2.31 times more likely, compared to women without either condition. Non-randomised trial, 2024 Does luteal phase sertraline treatment affect stress hormones and inflammation in PMDD? Sertraline during the luteal phase changed stress hormone levels in complex ways depending on other hormonal factors, but results were mixed and this exploratory study had no placebo control group. Survey study, 2024 What causes PMS and which treatments actually help? This review suggests PMS is linked to changes in brain chemicals like GABA and the hormone-related substance allopregnanolone, and that several treatments (SSRIs, hormonal options, neurosteroids, supplements, therapy) can help, but no single treatment suits everyone. Survey study, 2024 Does a Chinese herbal medicine called ShuYu capsule help PMDD symptoms? In rats with PMDD-like symptoms, ShuYu capsules improved mood and reduced pain sensitivity. This is early animal research that hasn't been tested in women yet. Survey study, 2024 How do hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle affect gut health and mood? Hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle affect the bacteria in the gut and mood. Higher progesterone levels in the premenstrual phase are linked with worse bloating, constipation, and mood swings. Approximately 50% to 80% of women experience premenstrual symptoms that affect daily life. Case-control study, 2023 Does allopregnanolone affect how women with PMDD respond to stress? Women with PMDD had a much larger drop in heart rate variability during stress than healthy women, and recovered more slowly. Baseline allopregnanolone levels predicted the heart response only in women with PMDD. Lab study, 2023 How does allopregnanolone help with PMDD symptoms? In rats with PMDD-like symptoms, allopregnanolone reduced anxiety and improved how brain receptors work in areas that control emotions. Survey study, 2023 Does having worse PMS symptoms mean a woman is more likely to feel depressed during pregnancy? Yes, in this study the mood-related symptoms of PMS, such as low mood, anxiety and poor sleep, strongly predicted depressive symptoms in early pregnancy, which then predicted depression later in pregnancy. This is one observational study, so it shows a link, not a cause-and-effect proof. Case-control study, 2023 Do women with PMDD show different brain responses to emotions across the menstrual cycle? Women with PMDD show increased activity in emotion-processing brain areas during the late luteal phase compared to controls, and this activity is linked to the balance of allopregnanolone and isoallopregnanolone in different ways than in healthy women. Survey study, 2023 Could treatments that affect the brain's GABA system help PMDD? This review suggests GABA system changes may cause PMDD symptoms. Three compounds being tested in early clinical trials show promise, but much larger studies are needed to confirm if they work. Lab study, 2023 Can a chemical reduce aggressive behavior during the late phase of a cycle similar to the menstrual cycle? In a rat study, a chemical called isoallopregnanolone reduced aggressive behavior during the late cycle phase. The treatment brought aggression down to levels seen in the early phase of the cycle. Survey study, 2023 How do hormone changes affect brain chemistry in PMDD? This review article proposes that PMDD occurs when the hormone allopregnanolone drops during the luteal phase, reducing sensitivity of brain receptors that normally calm activity. Targeting these receptors could be a strategy for treating PMDD. Lab study, 2023 Does Shuyu Capsule help with premenstrual depression? In laboratory studies with rats, Shuyu Capsule reduced depression symptoms by working through the progesterone-allopregnanolone-GABA pathway in the brain. It is not known whether this would help women with premenstrual depression. Randomised trial, 2023 Does a smartphone app for heart rate variability biofeedback reduce premenstrual and depressive symptoms? Yes, the app reduced premenstrual, depressive, and stress symptoms over 4 weeks. However, it did not change the underlying heart rate patterns it was designed to improve. Lab study, 2023 Does menstrual cycle phase affect anxiety differently after becoming a mother? Menstrual cycle phase changed anxiety in women without children but made no difference in mothers. Motherhood appears to reduce how hormones affect anxiety. Survey study, 2023 What causes PMDD? PMDD involves progesterone and brain chemistry. When progesterone converts to a substance called allopregnanolone in the brain, it affects how GABA receptors (brain cells that create calming signals) respond, which may trigger PMDD. Review, 2023 How does the stress response system affect depression during reproductive stages like PMDD? The HPA axis, which controls the stress response, changes during reproductive stages and plays an important role in depression risk at vulnerable times like PMDD, after birth, and perimenopause. Past stress and trauma exposure increase this risk. Review, 2022 Does mood and anxiety worsen during menstruation? Yes. Psychiatric disorders occur during menstruation in up to 80% of women and can affect menstrual health, fertility, and sexual function. Survey study, 2022 What causes PMDD symptoms and how can they be treated? Low progesterone is linked to PMDD symptoms. A medication called allopregnanolone and certain foods may help reduce symptoms. Lab study, 2022 What happens to PMDD symptoms when a specific brain gene is removed? Mice without a certain brain receptor gene showed some PMDD-like symptoms in memory and social behavior but had opposite changes in anxiety and pain, and did not respond to allopregnanolone. Study, 2022 Can changes in emotion recognition predict PMDD risk? Yes. Women who showed changes in how they recognized emotions at different cycle phases were more likely to have PMDD. Of 16 women with emotion recognition changes, 7 had PMDD. Of 22 women without emotion changes, only 2 had PMDD. Review, 2022 Can blocking a natural brain steroid help PMDD? Maybe. An early study showed that blocking a steroid called allopregnanolone improved negative mood in women with PMDD compared with placebo, but more research is needed. Survey study, 2022 Is there a link between premenstrual syndrome and fear of childbirth? Yes, women with more PMS symptoms tend to have more fear of childbirth, though the connection is weak. This finding comes from university students only, so we should be cautious about whether it applies to all women. Study, 2022 Why do women get PMS and PMDD? PMS and PMDD happen because the brain responds very sensitively to normal changes in estrogen and progesterone during the menstrual cycle. Several brain systems control mood and are affected. Survey study, 2022 Does PMS increase the risk of depression after birth or other pregnancy problems? Women with PMS took much longer to get pregnant (9.2 months versus 6.1 months), had about 4 times higher rates of depression after birth, and 2 times higher rates of miscarriage. Although these findings are significant, the absolute number of miscarriages was small. Survey study, 2022 Does having PMS before pregnancy relate to postpartum depression and bonding with your baby? Yes, mothers with higher PMS scores before pregnancy tended to have higher postpartum depression scores and more difficulties bonding with their infant. Randomised trial, 2022 Does having PMS before pregnancy increase the risk of depression during pregnancy? No significant association was found. A study of 366 women found no clear link between PMS before pregnancy and antenatal depression, though the sample with PMS was very small. Survey study, 2022 How does obesity affect the menstrual cycle in adolescents? Adolescents with obesity are more likely to have irregular menstrual cycles, PCOS (polycystic ovary syndrome), and premenstrual disorders including PMS and PMDD. The hormonal changes in obesity help explain these connections. Cohort study, 2021 Is PMDD associated with postpartum depression in first-time mothers? Yes, strongly. Women who developed postpartum depression were much more likely to have PMDD: 81.81% of women with depression had PMDD versus 16% without depression. Case report, 2021 Can dydrogesterone help period pain, irregular cycles, PMS, and pregnancy loss, not just menopause? This review of past evidence, together with an account of one woman's care, suggests dydrogesterone may help with these conditions, but it does not report new trial results of its own. Review, 2021 What does progesterone do besides help with pregnancy? Progesterone is essential for the menstrual cycle and helps control other hormones, immune function, and possibly prevents disease. Without it, reproduction is not possible. Case-control study, 2021 Do women with PMS have different cortisol levels and patterns? Women with PMS may have higher stress-related cortisol levels and delayed patterns. Many studies are small with limited power, so conclusions are tentative. Survey study, 2021 Are women with ADHD more likely to experience PMDD and postpartum depression? Yes, very much so. Women with ADHD have significantly higher rates of PMDD and postpartum depression compared to the general population. Study, 2020 Can nitric oxide help women with low progesterone prepare for pregnancy? Nitric oxide and progesterone treatment may help prepare the uterus for pregnancy in women with low progesterone levels during the luteal phase of the cycle. Non-randomised trial, 2020 Does inflammation increase in the uterus and blood during menstruation? Yes. A specific inflammation trigger called the NLRP3 inflammasome activates in uterine cells just before menstruation and releases inflammatory chemicals into the bloodstream. Review, 2020 Do hormonal contraceptives cause depression? The link between hormonal contraceptives and depression is still debated. Women with a history of mood disorders or PMDD are at higher risk of mood effects, and adolescence appears to be a critical vulnerable period. Cohort study, 2020 Can depression screening after birth predict who will develop PMS? A high depression score after birth may signal increased risk of developing PMS or PMDD in the next year, but the evidence is preliminary and the difference was not statistically significant. Survey study, 2019 Does allopregnanolone, a hormone made from progesterone, affect premenstrual mood? Growing evidence suggests allopregnanolone may influence mood during the premenstrual phase and other reproductive times, but exactly how it works is not yet clear. Survey study, 2019 Why might depression develop when women stop breastfeeding? This review proposes that hormonal changes during weaning may trigger depression in some women. A brain chemical normally calming anxiety may work differently during weaning, worsening mood instead. Survey study, 2018 Do PMS and unhelpful thinking patterns connect to postpartum depression? Yes. Both showed clear connections to postpartum depression. Together they explained 42% of the variation in depression scores. Randomised trial, 2018 How do progesterone metabolites affect PMDD symptoms? Women with PMDD respond differently to these natural brain chemicals. Blocking one type may reduce negative mood symptoms, but this summary is incomplete. Survey study, 2018 How do women respond differently to psychiatric medications and why do we need sex-specific treatments? Women respond differently to psychiatric medications than men because of biological differences in brain receptors and hormones. Sex-specific treatments are important for conditions like PMDD and postpartum depression. Survey study, 2017 Are prolactin and beta-arrestin1 different in PMDD versus PMS? In women with PMDD and depression, beta-arrestin1 protein was reduced and prolactin was increased compared to those with PMS. These two changes were correlated. This is a tiny study and much more research is needed. Survey study, 2017 How do hormones affect both migraines and mood? Estrogen affects both mood and migraines through serotonin and the trigeminal nerve system. Keeping estrogen stable with hormonal treatment may help both problems. Survey study, 2017 Does the body's immune response to tryptophan relate to PMS? Women with PMS had higher immune responses to certain tryptophan byproducts. This suggests PMS involves the immune system, though more research is needed to understand what this means. Interview study, 2017 Is PMDD caused by genes? Probably not much. There is limited evidence that genes cause PMDD, though some genes may play a role. The evidence is stronger for postpartum depression. Review, 2017 Could hormonal and immune changes cause both PMS and postpartum depression? Possibly. This review proposes that similar changes in hormones and immune markers during the menstrual cycle might explain why PMS symptoms often improve during pregnancy but return and worsen after birth as postpartum depression. Review, 2017 How does the menstrual cycle affect mood and development, especially in adolescents? Menstrual cycle-related symptoms may trigger developmental challenges that worsen mood symptoms in adolescent girls and have long-term effects. Individual responses to hormones vary greatly, so each woman's experience differs. Study, 2017 Can gynecologists help find and treat depression in women? Yes. Since gynecologists see women during times when depression risk is highest, they can screen for depression and help with treatment. Randomised trial, 2016 Does blocking progesterone conversion help PMDD symptoms? A high dose of dutasteride reduced several PMDD symptoms by blocking conversion of progesterone to a hormone compound. However, only the high dose worked and the study was small. Survey study, 2016 Can a blood test tell PMDD apart from regular PMS? Possibly, but this is early lab research. Women with PMDD had lower beta-arrestin1 protein and higher testosterone than women with PMS, suggesting these might one day help with diagnosis, but it has not been tested as an actual diagnostic test. Case-control study, 2016 Do women with PMS have more problems during pregnancy and labor? Yes. Women with PMS had more pregnancies and labors overall, and those with the edematous form (swelling) had much higher rates of late pregnancy complications. Survey study, 2016 Do women with PMDD also have postpartum depression? Rarely. Only about 11.7% of women with PMDD had a history of postpartum depression, suggesting these are separate conditions even though both involve mood changes. Survey study, 2016 How do mental health conditions change during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and perimenopause? Women have higher rates of depression, anxiety, and eating disorders than men. This review found that these conditions may change during the premenstrual phase and other reproductive stages, though it summarized existing research rather than testing new treatments. Case-control study, 2016 Do women with PMDD respond differently to allopregnanolone across the menstrual cycle? Yes, women with PMDD show an opposite pattern of brain response to injected allopregnanolone across the cycle compared to healthy women, with stronger effects in the luteal phase, suggesting altered sensitivity to this hormone. Survey study, 2015 Is PMDD linked to postpartum depression? Yes, strongly. Among women with postpartum depression, 34.8% had PMDD, compared to only 4.9% without postpartum depression. This suggests a hormonal connection between the two conditions. Survey study, 2015 Do emotional problems get worse before menstruation for women veterans? Yes, about 4 in 10 women veterans reported their emotional problems got worse before menstruation. Many also reported emotional changes during pregnancy, after birth, and perimenopause. Study, 2015 How are hormones related to depression in women? Depression in women is caused by hormonal changes at certain times: before periods, after birth, and around menopause. These can be effectively treated with medications or procedures that change hormone levels, especially transdermal estrogens. Survey study, 2015 Which screening tool is best for diagnosing PMDD and menstrual-related psychiatric conditions? There is no agreed-upon best tool. Different studies use different definitions and methods, making it hard to compare research and provide consistent care. Survey study, 2014 Does allopregnanolone, a progesterone metabolite, cause mood problems in PMDD? Theory suggests it might. In women with PMDD, allopregnanolone levels increase during the menstrual cycle and appear linked to mood changes. Paradoxically, this brain chemical normally calms the brain. Survey study, 2014 Does allopregnanolone cause mood problems in premenstrual dysphoria and postpartum depression? It may trigger mood problems in susceptible women, but the research is preliminary. There is no clear evidence that allopregnanolone levels differ between those with and without these conditions. Case-control study, 2014 Is a certain gene linked to period symptoms and depression around pregnancy? Possibly. Women with depression during or after pregnancy reported more frequent premenstrual and menstrual symptoms, and a specific gene variant (RAI1) was more common in them. Study, 2014 Does the oral contraceptive Marvelon help with PMS symptoms? Yes. When women took Marvelon (a combination birth control pill) for 6 months, their PMS symptoms got noticeably better. Other measures of health including blood cholesterol also improved. Non-randomised trial, 2014 Does hormone therapy help women with depression linked to periods and menopause? Yes. Thirty-five percent reported being cured and 55 percent had considerable improvement. For 94 percent, hormone therapy was life-changing for the better, and none reported worsening. Cohort study, 2014 Does exposure to PFOS or PFOA chemicals affect menstrual cycles? Higher exposure to PFOA was linked to longer menstrual cycles. However, this was a cross-sectional study that cannot prove the chemicals caused the change. Lab study, 2014 How do changes in brain chemistry during the menstrual cycle affect memory and thinking? In mice, certain brain receptors change levels during the ovarian cycle, affecting brain wave patterns in a way that may explain memory and thinking problems in women with PMS or PMDD. Lab study, 2014 Does the hormone drop around the menstrual period change the brain's response to a calming chemical? In mice, mimicking the hormone drop around the period changed a brain receptor part and made brain cells more sensitive to a calming hormone, affecting seizure risk. This is a mouse study, so it may not work the same way in women. Case-control study, 2014 Are hormone and nerve chemical patterns different in different types of PMS? Women with two different types of PMS had different patterns of brain hormones and chemicals, particularly ones linked to anger and depression. The patterns could partly explain why symptoms differ between women. Review, 2014 Why do some women get mood problems during their menstrual cycle and after having a baby? According to laboratory research, women's brains change how they regulate a calming brain chemical during hormonal changes. When the brain cannot adapt properly, mood disorders like PMS, PMDD, and postpartum depression may develop. Survey study, 2013 What role do neurosteroids play in women's health? Neurosteroids are chemicals in the brain and nervous system that control how nerve cells work. They may be useful for treating health issues related to aging and reproductive hormones. Survey study, 2013 Is emotional PMS connected to postpartum depression risk? Yes. Women with three or more emotional PMS symptoms had 3.78 times the risk of developing postpartum depression compared to other women. Non-randomised trial, 2013 Does hormone desensitization help PMS and improve pregnancy outcomes in women with recurrent miscarriage? Yes, 21 of 26 women had improved PMS symptoms and 61% had successful pregnancies afterward. This is a very small study with no control group, so we cannot be confident this works. Lab study, 2013 Could antidepressants help prevent PMS by keeping brain chemicals stable? This is a theory based on how antidepressants work and animal research, but it has not yet been tested in women. Survey study, 2013 What causes depression during pregnancy, and does PMS increase the risk? Yes. Depression during pregnancy is linked to many factors including premenstrual syndrome. Emotional support from partners and family members significantly reduces the risk. Survey study, 2012 How do changes in brain chemicals during your cycle affect seizures? This lab study in mice found that a brain chemical that normally decreases before your period protects against seizures. When it drops, seizures become more likely. Case-control study, 2012 Do women with anger and depression types of premenstrual syndrome have different brain chemicals? Yes. Women with these PMS types had significantly lower calming brain chemicals (allopregnanolone and pregnenolone) and significantly higher stress hormones (adrenaline and noradrenaline) during the luteal phase compared to healthy women. Case report, 2012 How can doctors tell the difference between severe PMS and bipolar disorder? Doctors can tell the difference by looking for symptoms that clearly follow the menstrual cycle and improve during pregnancy. These patterns occur in severe PMS but not in bipolar disorder, and severe PMS doesn't respond to antidepressants or mood-stabilizing medications used for bipolar disorder. Survey study, 2011 Why do women get panic disorder more often than men? This review proposes that women with anxiety sensitivity may be more vulnerable to panic disorder because progesterone and its brain chemical allopregnanolone interact differently during the premenstrual phase. The evidence is preliminary. Survey study, 2011 How do women feel about menstruation and does it interfere with daily life? Many women dislike menstruation mainly because it is inconvenient or uncomfortable, and it interferes with school (22%) and relationships (43%), though some women value it for confirming health. Study, 2011 Does taking vitex help reduce PMS symptoms in teenage girls? Yes. In this study, 44.4% of the girls had no PMS complaints at all after 3 months of treatment, and another 28.8% had a reduction of all their PMS symptoms. Survey study, 2011 Do hormones affect types of headaches other than migraines? This review suggests that hormones and menstruation do affect various types of headaches besides migraines. However, the evidence is not as clear or strong as the evidence for hormone-related migraines. Study, 2011 Can sensitivity to your own hormones cause PMS? Yes. Some women may have unusual sensitivity to estrogen and progesterone that causes PMS and other problems. This can be diagnosed with skin tests and treated with small hormone doses. Cohort study, 2010 How do anxiety disorders differ across different life stages? The provided summary focuses on anxiety in children and risk factors. The section about women and hormones is cut off in the provided text, so no conclusion about menstrual-related anxiety can be drawn. Survey study, 2010 Do women in different menstrual phases respond to stress differently than men? Yes. Men showed stronger hormonal stress responses than women. However, women in the luteal phase reported feeling more stressed and showed greater emotional stress hormone responses than women in the follicular phase. Non-randomised trial, 2010 Does the menstrual cycle change how the brain responds to stress? Yes. In the late luteal phase (before your period), stress affected brain emotion regions differently than in other cycle phases, with unexpected lower response in the late luteal phase. Women with higher natural hormone changes showed smaller brain responses to stress. Randomised trial, 2009 Does a hormone called allopregnanolone calm the body's startle reaction in PMDD? No. Giving this hormone by injection made women feel more sedated but did not change their physical startle response, in either women with PMDD or healthy women. Randomised trial, 2009 What does research show about alternative treatments like herbs and supplements for PMS? There is limited evidence from well-designed studies on herbs, supplements, and vitamins for PMS. More research is needed to determine which treatments are safe and effective. Study, 2009 Can the standard mental health diagnostic interview assess PMS and PMDD adequately? No. The standard interview does not assess PMS, PMDD, or other women-specific mental health conditions. New diagnostic modules were developed to address this gap. Lab study, 2009 Does a stress-reducing hormone work differently at puberty? Yes. In female mice, pregnanolone (a hormone that normally reduces anxiety) actually increases anxiety at puberty because the brain develops new receptors that respond to it differently. Survey study, 2009 Why do some women feel depressed or anxious when progesterone increases before their period? A literature review suggests progesterone is converted to chemicals that affect the brain's GABA system. At levels before the period, these chemicals paradoxically cause anxiety instead of calming it. Women with PMDD have changes in their GABA system that make them more sensitive. Case report, 2008 Can a workplace support system help women with menstrual problems at work? A Japanese company set up a support system for women's health, and after it started, fewer women left their jobs early because of menstrual disorders, miscarriage, or menopause problems. This is one company's experience, not a controlled study, so it cannot prove the system alone caused the change. Survey study, 2008 Does having PMS increase the risk of depression after having a baby? Yes. Women with a history of PMS were about 1.8 times more likely to develop depression in the six weeks after giving birth compared to those without PMS. Lab study, 2008 Does progesterone withdrawal affect anxiety in female brains? When progesterone levels drop, specific changes happen in a brain region involved in anxiety. This research is in rats, not humans, so we do not know if the findings apply to women. Survey study, 2008 Do prenatal vitamins with folic acid prevent depression during pregnancy? No. Prenatal multivitamins with folic acid were not linked to lower depression rates during pregnancy, though women with a history of premenstrual syndrome had three times the risk of depression. Case-control study, 2008 Do women with seizures that worsen around their period have different hormone levels? Yes. Women whose seizures get worse before their period have lower THDOC levels and a lower DHEAS/cortisol ratio throughout their cycle (p < 0.05), which might explain their worsening seizures. Survey study, 2008 Do hormone changes during the premenstrual phase relate to mood symptoms in women with mood disorders? In women with bipolar disorder and major depression, progesterone and allopregnanolone levels during the premenstrual phase are linked to mixed mood features and suicidal ideas, particularly in those with bipolar disorder. We cannot be certain because the study is very small. Randomised trial, 2007 Is a brain hormone called allopregnanolone linked to how PMS symptoms improve with treatment? Possibly yes: in this very small study, women whose PMS symptoms improved, whether on real treatment or placebo, also had a drop in allopregnanolone levels. But with only 6 women per group, this is far from proven. Survey study, 2007 Is there a link between postnatal depression and premenstrual symptoms? No. Only one woman showed both conditions, and there was no association between postnatal distress and psychological symptoms in this study. Review, 2007 Could premenstrual symptoms result from infections that worsen with immune changes? This is a theoretical proposal that PMS may result from infections that flare when hormones suppress immunity. This is speculation, not a research finding. Review, 2007 What mental health problems are connected to reproduction? Mental health problems are often connected to pregnancy, childbirth, menstruation, and menopause, as well as miscarriage and abortion. Cohort study, 2007 Do women with depression or bipolar disorder experience premenstrual mood symptoms? 67.7% of women with major depression or bipolar disorder reported premenstrual mood symptoms, significantly more than women without mood disorders. The rates were similar between the two diagnoses. Survey study, 2007 How does diet affect a woman's ability to get pregnant? Folic acid supplements, omega-3 fatty acids, and healthy diets with seafood, poultry, whole grains, fruits and vegetables are linked to better fertility. These findings come from reviewing studies rather than testing one new approach. Survey study, 2006 Does the menstrual cycle affect how severe OCD symptoms are? Yes. For many women with OCD, symptoms get worse before their period, with nearly half reporting this pattern. The menstrual cycle should be considered when assessing OCD severity. Review, 2006 When mood changes seem tied to your cycle, is it actually PMDD? No. Many mood and anxiety symptoms tied to the menstrual cycle are not genuine PMDD. When true PMDD occurs, its impact on quality of life is similar to major depressive disorder. Study, 2006 Can endometrial biopsy during the menstrual cycle cause pregnancy loss? Yes. Two cases reported women who lost pregnancies after endometrial biopsy, because the biopsy was done after pregnancy had already begun. Review, 2006 Are sleep problems more common in women across their reproductive life? Yes. Sleep disorders are more prevalent in women than men. Sex hormones affect sleep and mood, which may explain increased risk at different life stages. Case-control study, 2006 Can disrupted sleep and body rhythms explain mood problems around periods, pregnancy, or after birth? It's a promising idea but not yet proven. Women with depression at these times show a different pattern of sleep and body rhythms than healthy women, though the exact pattern differs by life stage. Lab study, 2006 Can a hormone that usually reduces anxiety instead cause anxiety after your body adapts to its being blocked? Yes. When a hormone precursor was blocked, the hormone THP (which normally calms anxiety) instead increased anxiety in female mice. This effect involved changes to specific brain receptors. Review, 2006 Do hormone-related brain chemicals explain why some women develop mood disorders? Possibly. Natural steroid hormones in the brain, like allopregnanolone, seem to affect GABA, the brain's main calming chemical, and this interaction may contribute to mood and substance use disorders in women, according to a review of lab and clinical research. Survey study, 2005 How common is depression during pregnancy and what causes it? Depression affects about 13.9% of pregnant women in this Lebanese hospital. Risk factors include family history of depression, mood changes before the period, and life stressors like lack of partner support and financial problems. Randomised trial, 2005 Can estrogen treat depression linked to hormonal changes? Estrogen affects mood through brain chemistry, but there is not enough evidence to recommend it as a main treatment. SSRIs (a type of antidepressant) remain the standard choice. Survey study, 2005 Does the menstrual cycle affect obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms? Yes, for some women. OCD started at menarche in 22% of women and worsened premenstrually in 20%. It worsened after childbirth in 50% of women who became pregnant. Survey study, 2005 How does trauma history affect PMDD symptoms and pregnancy? Women with PMDD who experienced trauma show different body reactions to stress and may experience symptom changes during pregnancy. These findings come from reviewing existing published research rather than new studies. Study, 2004 Did SSRIs change what people thought of as depression in women? Between 1985 and 2000, as SSRIs became available for PMDD and related conditions, popular media began describing menstruation, motherhood, and childbirth as potential signs of depression. Review, 2004 Could a brain hormone called allopregnanolone explain mood problems like PMDD in women? This review suggests that changes in allopregnanolone, a hormone-like substance in the brain, may be linked to mood problems including premenstrual dysphoria (PMDD), but this is a theory based on existing animal and human research, not new proof. Survey study, 2004 How does the menstrual cycle affect sleep problems in women? Sleep problems in women are connected to hormone changes during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause. Medical systems recognize premenstrual insomnia and oversleeping as sleep disorders linked to the cycle. Case-control study, 2002 Does brain GABA change differently in women with PMDD during the menstrual cycle? Yes. GABA levels dropped across the cycle in healthy women but rose in women with PMDD. This is a very small study, so results need confirmation. Review, 2002 Are women more likely to get depression, especially due to hormonal changes? Yes. Women have 1.7 to 2.7 times higher risk of depression in their lifetime compared to men, and hormonal changes around puberty, periods, and menopause increase that risk. Survey study, 2002 What medical conditions and lifestyle factors affect menstrual cycle patterns? Several factors are linked to abnormal cycle patterns. Higher body weight, depression, starting periods after age 14, smoking, and a history of difficulty getting pregnant are all associated with changes in cycle length. Survey study, 2002 Do birth control pills affect mood? Birth control pills help most women's mood by reducing mood swings and sadness during menstruation. However, some women experience worse mood while taking them, especially those with a history of depression or pregnancy mood problems. Cohort study, 2001 Do women with PMDD handle stress hormones differently than women without it? Yes. In this small study, women with PMDD showed different patterns of the hormone allopregnanolone and cortisol around stress compared to women without PMDD, hinting at a biological difference in how their bodies respond to stress. Randomised trial, 2001 Do changing reproductive hormones disrupt the body's internal clock and cause mood disorders? The authors propose that reproductive hormones may disrupt the body's internal clock in susceptible women, but this is a theory not yet proven. Women have twice the rate of depression as men. Survey study, 2001 Can hormonal changes cause headaches? Yes. Hormonal changes from starting your period, pregnancy, birth control, menopause, and hormone therapy can cause or worsen headaches, especially migraines. These headaches are difficult to treat. Review, 2001 Does calcium supplementation reduce PMS symptoms? Yes. Calcium supplementation significantly reduces both the physical symptoms (like pain or bloating) and emotional symptoms of PMS. Survey study, 2001 Do women with PMDD have other mental health conditions or personality traits? Most women with PMDD (77%) had experienced other mood or anxiety disorders in their past, compared with only 17% of women without PMDD. Two-thirds of women with PMDD who had children experienced postpartum depression. Case-control study, 2001 Do women with PMS respond differently to a serotonin challenge than healthy women? Yes. When given an intravenous tryptophan challenge, women with PMS showed a much larger increase in allopregnanolone than healthy women. This suggests a possible interaction between serotonin and brain hormones in women with PMS. However, the study was very small. Lab study, 2001 Does withdrawal of a progesterone metabolite increase seizure risk around menstruation? In rats, withdrawal of allopregnanolone (a progesterone metabolite) increased how easily seizures happen, supporting the theory that this withdrawal contributes to increased seizures during menstruation in women with epilepsy. Review, 2001 How do hormone changes during the menstrual cycle affect brain function? Hormones that fluctuate with the menstrual cycle, such as allopregnanolone, can enhance or suppress brain activity by changing how a key inhibitory neurotransmitter (GABA) works. This is a review explaining theory, not new research. Survey study, 2001 Does short-term progesterone exposure change anxiety and brain chemistry in female rats? Yes. Even 2-3 days of progesterone exposure changed brain cell receptors in a way linked to increased anxiety, and rats showed more anxiety-like behavior. Survey study, 2001 Do antidepressants work for PMDD? Yes, according to this review. Serotonergic antidepressants have shown effectiveness for premenstrual dysphoric disorder, whether taken every day or just during the luteal phase before the period. Survey study, 2000 What menstrual and gynecological problems do women with familial dysautonomia experience? Women with familial dysautonomia (a genetic nerve disorder) experience very high rates of premenstrual symptoms (81.2%) and often have delayed puberty. Some experience severe nervous system reactions during their menstrual cycle. Survey study, 2000 How do female hormones affect headaches and migraines? Female hormones strongly influence headaches. Estrogen withdrawal (the drop in estrogen before the period) appears to trigger migraines more than sustained high or low estrogen levels. Hormones affect pain-processing brain systems. Review, 2000 How do hormonal changes affect women's psychiatric conditions and their treatment? Psychiatric disorders occur more commonly or exclusively in women. Hormonal fluctuations across the menstrual cycle affect how psychiatric symptoms present and how medications work in women's bodies. Survey study, 2000 Is there a link between premenstrual syndrome and postnatal depression? This exploratory study found an association between PMS and later postnatal depression, suggesting women with PMS might be at higher risk. However, this is very early research and we cannot be confident the results apply widely. Survey study, 2000 How do female hormones affect migraines and headaches? Estrogen withdrawal appears to trigger menstrually-related migraines rather than sustained high or low hormone levels. Migraines are much more common in adult women than in men. Review, 2000 Do antidepressants work differently for women, and can they help PMDD? This expert review suggests newer antidepressants (SSRIs) may work better than older ones in women and may help premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), including when taken only in part of the cycle, but it is an opinion piece summarising other research, not a new trial. Study, 1999 Why is depression more common in women than men? Women are twice more likely than men to suffer from depression. This is related to biological, psychological, and social factors, especially during reproductive years when hormone changes occur. Review, 1999 Are SSRIs effective for treating PMDD? Yes, SSRIs are effective in treating PMDD and many related conditions in women, according to this review of depression treatment. Case-control study, 1999 Does pregnanolone affect hormones differently in women with PMS vs without? No. Pregnanolone changed progesterone levels in the same way in both groups, and women with PMS did not react differently from women without PMS. Case-control study, 1999 Does the menstrual cycle or PMS change how the body processes pregnanolone? No. The study found no significant differences in how quickly pregnanolone is eliminated in women with PMS compared to healthy women, or between different phases of the menstrual cycle. Review, 1999 Can diet help with premenstrual syndrome symptoms? Yes, several nutrients may help with PMS symptoms, including nutrients that affect serotonin levels, plus magnesium, calcium, and vitamin E. Study, 1999 Does an immune molecule called IL-8 change in the uterine lining during the menstrual cycle? Yes. IL-8 increases significantly near the end of the menstrual cycle and in early pregnancy, drops in the middle of the cycle, and increases again within 48 hours after progesterone is withdrawn. Review, 1999 Do SSRI antidepressants work for PMDD? Yes, SSRIs are the treatment of choice for PMDD because they are effective, have acceptable side effects, and are well tolerated. Case-control study, 1998 Are hormone levels different in women with PMS? Yes, women with PMS had significantly lower progesterone and allopregnanolone levels during the follicular phase of their cycle compared to controls. Non-randomised trial, 1998 Does the antidepressant citalopram change how women with PMS respond to the brain chemical pregnanolone? Yes. During citalopram treatment, pregnanolone caused measurable eye movement changes that did not occur before treatment. This small uncontrolled study needs confirmation in larger trials. Lab study, 1998 How does progesterone dropping affect the brain's anxiety-control system? When progesterone suddenly drops, the brain's anxiety-calming system becomes much less effective. This might explain anxiety symptoms that some women experience before their period. Case report, 1998 Can drops in estrogen before your period cause psychotic episodes? A case report and literature review propose that sudden drops in estrogen before menstruation may trigger psychotic episodes in vulnerable women, but this is a theory that needs more testing. Case-control study, 1998 Does the menstrual cycle affect bowel disease symptoms? Yes, significantly. Women with bowel disease reported much more cyclical bowel symptoms than healthy women, with Crohn's disease patients particularly affected. Survey study, 1997 Does pregnancy or the menstrual cycle affect OCD symptoms? Some women's OCD worsened before their period (42 percent) and after childbirth (29 percent), suggesting hormones may play a role. However, most women's OCD did not change during pregnancy itself (69 percent had no change). Case-control study, 1997 Is a specific progesterone hormone lower in women with PMS? Yes. Women with PMS had lower levels of allopregnanolone (a calming hormone made from progesterone) in the luteal phase compared to women without PMS. Survey study, 1997 Does the menstrual cycle affect compulsive hair-pulling? Yes. Women reported premenstrual worsening of hair-pulling urges, frequency, and difficulty controlling the behavior, with improvement during menstruation. Pregnancy effects were variable. Review, 1997 Is PMS classified as a mood disorder? Yes, PMS is listed as one of the common mood disorders seen in women in primary care, along with depression and other conditions. Review, 1996 How does estrogen affect mood and memory? Yes. Estrogen affects mood and memory by changing levels of brain chemicals that control emotion and behavior. Low estrogen is linked to PMS, depression after childbirth, and postmenopausal depression, though human studies remain limited. Study, 1996 Is PMDD officially recognized as a mood disorder? Yes. PMDD is classified as a mood disorder in the medical system used for diagnosis. More evidence is supporting this classification. Survey study, 1996 Are PMS symptoms connected to steroid hormone levels? Women with PMS had higher estradiol and lower progesterone than control women. Symptom peaks occurred 1 day after pregnenolone sulfate peaked or 3 to 4 days after other steroid peaks. Higher luteal estradiol and certain other steroids related to worse symptoms. Review, 1996 Do PMS, postpartum depression, and menopause share a common cause related to the brain? The hypothesis suggests that when brain estrogen levels fall below a critical threshold, mood and neurological symptoms develop. This could explain why PMS, postpartum depression, and menopause involve similar symptoms, though the mechanism remains unproven. Survey study, 1995 What causes menstrual problems and depression in early pregnancy? This is a review of existing research, not a new study. It discusses psychological and biological factors that may contribute to menstrual problems and depression in pregnancy. Non-randomised trial, 1994 Are progesterone and its related hormones different in women with PMS? No. Hormone levels were the same in women with PMS and healthy women. Symptom severity did not depend on these hormone levels. Review, 1993 Can magnesium help relieve premenstrual mood changes? This review states that magnesium relieves premenstrual mood changes and eases period pain, alongside other roles in pregnancy, but it does not provide specific trial numbers to back up the PMS claim. Lab study, 1993 What does stopping progesterone do to anxiety in rats? In rats, withdrawal from progesterone increased anxiety-like behaviors including faster and longer defensive responses. This effect appeared to be caused by a progesterone breakdown product rather than progesterone itself. Review, 1993 What mood disorders affect women and how should they be treated? Yes. Premenstrual depression is strongly linked to major depression and responds well to serotonin-boosting antidepressants. SSRIs are especially useful because they have few side effects and are safe even in overdose. Case report, 1992 Can severe depression linked to the menstrual cycle be treated? Yes. One woman with severe psychotic depression that happened every month before her period improved completely with bupropion medication after many other treatments failed. Survey study, 1991 How do stress hormones affect the menstrual cycle and PMS? Stress hormones in the brain can suppress the hormones needed for normal menstruation and ovulation. Changes in certain brain chemicals during the cycle may be linked to PMS symptoms, but evidence comes mainly from animal studies and theory rather than clinical trials. Study, 1991 Does hormone treatment for infertility cause structural changes to the uterine lining? In infertile women treated with hormones to trigger ovulation, about half of the uterine lining samples showed structural abnormalities that may affect pregnancy. Survey study, 1991 Does atopic dermatitis get worse before your period? Yes, about one in three women report their atopic dermatitis worsens before their period, especially if they have PMS. During pregnancy, half worsened but some improved. Interview study, 1991 Is premenstrual depression the same as depression from a mood disorder? For many women with PMS, the depression before their period is similar in type and severity to major depressive disorder, except it lasts shorter. Women with a history of depression after childbirth were more likely to have severe premenstrual depression. Survey study, 1990 Do women who had pre-eclampsia in pregnancy experience more premenstrual symptoms? Mostly no. Women who had severe pre-eclampsia actually had fewer premenstrual symptoms than average. Only women with current high blood pressure reported more premenstrual sadness. Cohort study, 1989 Do women with premenstrual depression have different sleep patterns? Yes. Women with premenstrual depression had more light sleep and less dream sleep overall, but these patterns did not clearly worsen before their period. Survey study, 1988 How do women with PMS differ from those without PMS on mental health? Women with PMS had higher depression and stress than community women without it. Some women without a PMS diagnosis showed cyclical symptom patterns, suggesting they may develop PMS later. Study, 1987 How should doctors treat menstrual problems in the emergency room? This article reviews how to manage common menstrual problems including painful periods, heavy bleeding, and PMS when women come to the emergency room. Review, 1987 Can progesterone tablets help PMS? Oral micronized progesterone appears suitable for treating PMS, with no reported side effects on heart health factors tested. However, this is a review, not a clinical trial proving it works. Interview study, 1987 What causes sad feelings in the days after giving birth? Feeling pessimistic during pregnancy that comes true after birth is the strongest predictor of maternity blues. Women with severe premenstrual tension, unplanned pregnancies, or who considered abortion early are also at higher risk. Survey study, 1984 Do asthma symptoms get worse before a woman's period? Yes, about 40 percent of women with asthma reported worsening symptoms, confirmed by peak flow measurements. This is a cross-sectional study with unreported sample size, which limits how certain we can be. Survey study, 1984 Are there biological differences in how depression develops in women versus men? Yes. Women show more abnormal levels of brain chemicals related to depression compared to men. Women also experience mood changes around menstruation and after birth that may relate to these biological differences, but the clinical meaning remains unclear. Case report, 1983 Can a hormone treatment stop psychosis that comes back with the menstrual cycle? In this one woman, yes - her psychosis stopped coming back each month when she took danazol, a hormone-blocking drug. But this is one person's story, so we can't be sure it would work for others. Review, 1982 Can bromocriptine treat PMS and infertility caused by high prolactin? Yes, bromocriptine restores normal prolactin and brings back periods and fertility in most cases of high prolactin, and can also treat premenstrual syndrome. No birth defects have been reported from bromocriptine use. Study, 1982 Does vitamin B6 help side effects from birth control pills? Research over 15 years shows that women on birth control pills often have low vitamin B6 levels. Taking 40 mg of vitamin B6 daily improved these levels and relieved symptoms like depression, anxiety, and low libido. Cohort study, 1981 What causes nipple discharge in women with normal periods? Nipple discharge may be caused by low thyroid hormone or high stress hormones and anxiety. These were found in different groups of women with this symptom. Study, 1981 Do premenstrual tension symptoms go away after hysterectomy? No, cyclical mood and physical changes linked to the menstrual cycle continue after hysterectomy in women who had premenstrual tension syndrome, which suggests the cause is hormonal rather than related to the uterus itself. Survey study, 1981 Could endorphins cause premenstrual and postpartum depression? This is a proposed theory, not proven by research. The authors suggest that changes in endorphin levels (natural chemicals that affect mood and pain) might contribute to depression before the period and after birth, since both endorphins and estrogen drop rapidly at these times. Survey study, 1981 Is premenstrual syndrome linked to personality traits? Among 110 pregnant women, those with more severe PMS had more extreme personality traits, suggesting psychological factors may be involved. However, the study cannot prove personality causes PMS. Case report, 1981 How do hormonal birth control and progesterone affect mood? Hormonal birth control affects mood differently in different women. In some, it causes depression and loss of sexual desire. In others, it has mood-stabilizing effects and can reduce PMS. How progesterone and hormonal birth control affect mood varies from person to person. Study, 1979 How do brain waves change after giving birth compared to pregnancy? Brain wave patterns become stronger and show more activity after delivery compared to late pregnancy at week 32. Anxiety and irritability improve after delivery, and these changes do not appear in women who are not pregnant or postpartum. Randomised trial, 1976 Does bromocriptine help premenstrual syndrome and infertility? Yes, bromocriptine improved PMS symptoms and was associated with pregnancies in women treated for infertility, likely by lowering the hormone prolactin. Survey study, 1975 How do brain chemicals change during the menstrual cycle? Yes, brain chemicals change during the menstrual cycle in specific ways. One chemical involved in mood is lower during ovulation than before the period, and another is 20% lower before the period than at other times. Review, 1975 How does a woman's psychological state affect her gynecological health? The author suggests that a woman's psychological equilibrium and sense of identity influence her gynecological health, though this is based on clinical observation rather than controlled research. Survey study, 1975 Are estrogen and progesterone levels different in women with seizures that occur before their period? Yes, women with seizures before menstruation had significantly lower levels of progesterone metabolites, especially on days 1-2 before bleeding. Researchers suggest this may increase seizure risk, but the study is too small to be definitive. Survey study, 1939 Can a skin condition timed to the menstrual cycle be linked to progesterone levels? In one woman, a cyclic skin rash appearing before menstruation, along with menstrual headaches and heavy periods, was linked to high levels of progesterone metabolite in her urine. When hormone therapy lowered this level, she felt relief, but this is only one person. 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