--- title: Alcohol, smoking and substance use: 186 studies, explained | Niyora description: 186 studies on alcohol, smoking and substance use and PMS or PMDD, each summarised in plain English: what was tested, who took part, what they found and what url: https://niyora.com/research/topics/comorbidity-substance-use/ --- - [Niyora](https://niyora.com/) - [Research](https://niyora.com/research/) - [Library](https://niyora.com/research/library/) - Alcohol, smoking and substance use # Alcohol, smoking and substance use: what the research says 186 studies on alcohol, smoking and substance use in PMS and PMDD, each explained in plain English. 13 of them use the strongest designs: randomised trials and systematic reviews. Survey study 91 Cohort study 21 Study 18 Randomised trial 16 Case-control study 11 Review 8 Survey study, 2025 Does PMDD or PMS affect quality of life? Women with PMDD had noticeably lower quality of life scores. Women with only PMS had quality of life similar to those without these conditions. The study accounted for smoking, obesity, education, and other factors. Cohort study, 2025 Are irregular menstrual cycles linked to lower thinking and memory skills in middle-aged women? Yes. Women with irregular cycles at ages 29-46 and women with very short cycles (25 days or less) at ages 18-22 both had slightly lower memory scores later in life. Randomised trial, 2025 Does the menstrual cycle phase affect how much alcohol impairs women's memory? Yes, women's working memory was less impaired by alcohol during the late follicular phase (when estradiol is high) compared to the early follicular phase (when estradiol is low), suggesting higher estradiol may protect against alcohol's cognitive effects. Systematic review, 2025 Does alcohol use affect menstrual health in teenage girls? Yes. Alcohol use is linked to irregular periods, PMS, period pain, and early or unintended pregnancy in teenage girls, though more research is needed to prove alcohol directly causes these problems. Systematic review, 2022 What factors increase risk of period pain and PMS symptoms? Stress, poor sleep, late bedtimes, low weight, and family history increase risk. Smoking makes symptoms more severe. Most of these factors can be modified through lifestyle changes. Systematic review, 2021 Does substance use change across the menstrual cycle, especially in women with PMS or PMDD? Yes. Women use more nicotine before and during their period, especially those with PMDD or PMS, and alcohol use also increases during these phases. Systematic review, 2019 Do women take more health-related risks at certain times in their menstrual cycle? Women show higher sexual activity and better risk awareness during ovulation, but no consistent pattern for alcohol or cigarette smoking across the cycle. Review, 2018 Which women are most likely to experience hot flashes during menopause? Up to 80% of women experience hot flashes during menopause, lasting about 10 years on average. Black and Hispanic women are more likely to experience them, while Asian women are less likely. Case-control study, 2016 Does caffeine intake cause or worsen PMS? No. Total caffeine intake was not associated with PMS development, and high coffee intake also was not associated with PMS. Current recommendations for women to reduce caffeine to prevent PMS may not be helpful. Cohort study, 2014 Does childhood abuse increase the risk of PMS in adulthood? Yes, women with childhood emotional abuse had 2.6 times higher PMS risk, and those with physical abuse had 2.1 times higher risk. This 14-year prospective study provides strong evidence. Cohort study, 2014 How common are PMS and dysmenorrhea in young women and do they change over time? Both are very common. PMS affected 80% of Australian women at some point over 13 years; dysmenorrhea affected 60%. Both tend to persist if present, but women follow different patterns: some have symptoms continuously, others develop them later, some recover, and some have them on and off. Survey study, 2011 Is premenstrual syndrome related to major depression? Yes. Women with moderate to severe PMS are significantly more likely to have depression (11.3% to 24.6% depending on PMS severity). Women with both conditions are more severely impaired than those with either alone. Cohort study, 1999 What causes negative mood during menopause? The menopause transition itself and hormone levels do not directly cause negative mood. Instead, past premenstrual problems, negative attitudes to aging, life stress, health problems, smoking, low exercise, and relationship issues are the main causes. Cohort study, 2026 Do early-life exposures like antibiotics or breastfeeding affect PMS risk? Yes. Long-term antibiotic use, earlier puberty, maternal smoking, and not being breastfed were linked to higher PMS odds. But only 0.07% of the study had PMS, so findings need careful interpretation. Survey study, 2026 What lifestyle and work factors are linked to PMDD symptoms in Chinese nurses? 42.4% of Chinese nurses have PMDD symptoms. Risk is higher in those who work night shifts, do not exercise, drink alcohol, are overweight in a certain range, or have depression, anxiety, or poor sleep. Cohort study, 2026 Are diet and lifestyle linked to premenstrual symptoms in college students? Yes. Regular exercise was linked to lower rates of significant PMS, while smoking and certain foods were linked to higher rates. However, this is an observational study so we cannot know if these factors actually cause PMS. Cohort study, 2026 Which established risk factors genetically cause premenstrual disorder? Genetic analysis suggests three factors cause premenstrual disorder: earlier age at first period, higher BMI, and smoking. However, when tested in a smaller group, results were not consistent, so more research is needed to be sure. Cohort study, 2026 Does cannabis use vary across the menstrual cycle in people with premenstrual disorders? Yes, the amount of cannabis used peaks before menstruation and around ovulation in people with premenstrual disorders. The pattern is stronger when emotional symptoms worsen. Cohort study, 2026 What life and psychological factors are linked to PMS and PMDD? Both are linked to smoking, childhood trauma, poor mental health, and poor work-life balance. PMDD is also linked to being married with children. PMS is linked to alcohol use. Survey study, 2025 Are premenstrual symptoms linked to depression in teenage girls? Yes. Girls with premenstrual symptoms were about 1.7 times more likely to have depressive symptoms than girls without PMS. Survey study, 2025 Is PMS connected to mental health problems and lifestyle choices? Yes, 64% of nursing students had PMS and it was strongly linked to depression, anxiety and stress. PMS was also more common in students who smoked, drank alcohol, drank coffee or reported psychological problems. Survey study, 2024 Is physical activity linked to PMS symptoms? About 68.5% of young women had PMS. There was a weak but statistically significant association between physical activity and PMS severity, though it was too weak to draw strong conclusions. Survey study, 2024 Which lifestyle choices affect PMS symptoms? Depression was strongly linked to worse PMS symptoms, but exercise and relaxation showed no significant link. However, this was a snapshot survey that cannot prove depression causes PMS. Study, 2024 How do lifestyle factors like diet, exercise, and stress affect menstrual health and PMS? Lifestyle factors significantly affect menstrual health and PMS. A balanced diet with adequate vitamins, regular exercise, good stress management, and healthy weight can reduce PMS symptoms, while poor nutrition, high stress, extreme weight, and substance use make them worse. Survey study, 2024 What factors are linked to PMS in school-age girls? 22% of these Ethiopian school students had PMS. Heavy coffee drinking and sleep problems were the strongest risk factors, while exercise was protective. Results are from one city in Ethiopia. Survey study, 2023 Does drinking behavior change across the menstrual cycle? Yes, clear differences. Women drink more during mid-cycle and are more likely to drink heavily around ovulation and right before their period, especially on weekends. They also drink more to cope with stress right before their period. Survey study, 2023 Does the menstrual cycle phase affect smoking cessation outcomes? Withdrawal symptoms and cravings do not differ across menstrual cycle phases, but quit rates were higher during the luteal phase. However, the evidence is limited and contradictory. Survey study, 2022 What diet, stress, and lifestyle factors are linked to PMS symptoms? High coffee intake, sugar, stress, smoking, and low physical activity were all linked to worse PMS symptoms, with stress showing the strongest association. These are associations only, not proven causes. Survey study, 2021 Does secondhand tobacco smoke exposure affect the menstrual cycle and premenstrual symptoms? Yes. Women exposed to tobacco smoke had significantly more menstrual problems and more severe premenstrual and menstrual symptoms compared to those with no exposure. Past exposure during childhood or adolescence appeared especially harmful. Survey study, 2021 Does premenstrual syndrome affect sleep quality? Yes. Women with PMS had shorter total sleep time, took longer to fall asleep, and had worse sleep quality scores than women without PMS. Systematic review, 2020 Does smoking increase the risk of getting PMS? Yes, smoking is associated with 1.56 times higher risk of PMS. But it is unclear whether smoking causes PMS to worsen or whether women with PMS smoke to try to cope. Survey study, 2020 Is period pain common in Polish women and what causes it? Period pain is very common, affecting 94% of Polish women. It's linked to family history, lack of exercise, and low self-esteem, though this is a cross-sectional study so we cannot be sure these things cause it. Study, 2020 Does drinking and craving change across the menstrual cycle in women treated for alcohol use disorder? Yes. Women drank most during the mid-late luteal phase and menses. Women with less depression who felt less emotional stress during these times reported stronger alcohol cravings. Survey study, 2019 What diet and lifestyle factors are linked to PMS in university students? Smoking and eating foods high in calories, fat, sugar, and salt were linked to higher PMS risk among university students in the UAE. This observational study cannot prove these factors cause PMS. Case-control study, 2019 Is smoking linked to higher risk of PMS or PMDD? Yes. Smokers had higher odds of PMS (1.78 times) and PMDD (2.92 times) compared to non-smokers. This association was stronger with higher smoking amounts. Systematic review, 2018 Does drinking alcohol increase the risk of premenstrual syndrome? Yes. Any alcohol drinking was linked to a 45 percent increased risk of PMS, and heavy drinking was linked to a 79 percent increased risk. Randomised trial, 2017 Does the menstrual cycle affect cortisol levels or cigarette craving during smoking abstinence? The menstrual cycle did not affect cortisol levels during early smoking abstinence. However, cigarette craving behaved differently in different phases. It increased early in the follicular phase but decreased during the luteal phase. Study, 2017 Which pregnant women are most likely to feel sick during caesarean delivery under regional anaesthesia? Women who had severe nausea in early pregnancy, a history of motion sickness, and a history of premenstrual syndrome experienced higher rates of nausea during the surgery. Survey study, 2017 Do women with high PMS symptoms have more trouble quitting smoking? Women with high mood-related PMS symptoms had higher tobacco dependence, more withdrawal symptoms during previous quit attempts, and used more smoking cessation aids. This suggests they may have more difficulty quitting. Case-control study, 2017 What cellular changes might explain why some women develop PMDD? Researchers found that women with PMDD have abnormal differences in genes related to a protein complex called ESC/E(Z), which helps cells respond to hormones. This could explain why women develop PMDD even when their hormone levels are normal. Survey study, 2017 Are mental health problems linked to irregular periods in teenage girls? Yes. Girls with high stress are 1.88 times more likely to have irregular periods, those with depression are 2.01 times more likely, and those receiving counseling are 2.92 times more likely. Survey study, 2016 How common is PMS in nursing and midwifery students, and does smoking affect it? About one in three students (33%) have PMS. Current smokers have much higher rates (52.9%) than never-smokers (28.7%), suggesting smoking is linked to worse PMS. Cohort study, 2015 Does drinking alcohol affect reproductive hormones or menstrual cycle regularity? Recent alcohol drinks raise reproductive hormone levels, but moderate drinking does not appear to disrupt menstrual cycle regularity in the short term. Randomised trial, 2014 Does alcohol change brain activity during the menstrual cycle? Yes. Alcohol changed how the brain worked during thinking tasks, with effects varying by menstrual cycle phase, though the study was small. Randomised trial, 2014 How do menstrual cycle phase and depression affect smoking withdrawal symptoms? Depression level was more strongly linked to withdrawal symptoms than menstrual phase. However, the combination of depression and menstrual phase may worsen mood and period pain. Study, 2014 Does the menstrual cycle phase affect how women respond to nicotine? Yes. Women in the luteal phase showed reduced sensitivity to nicotine's effects and performed better on thinking tasks compared to women in the follicular phase, suggesting the luteal phase may reduce nicotine's rewarding effects. Randomised trial, 2013 Does menstrual phase and depression affect how women respond to nicotine after quitting smoking? Yes, but mainly in women without depression. Women without depression showed larger cycle-phase differences in heart rate, blood pressure, and nicotine response. Non-randomised trial, 2013 Does menstrual cycle phase affect protective hormones during smoking cessation? Yes. Allopregnanolone (a hormone related to progesterone) decreased by 10% during smoking cessation in the follicular phase but increased by 31% in the luteal phase, which may explain why the luteal phase is better for quitting smoking. Survey study, 2011 How do premenstrual symptoms change as women age, and what factors influence them? Premenstrual symptoms follow different patterns as women age: some stay the same, some decrease, some peak around age 35, and others peak around age 40-44. Smoking is linked to more symptoms, and having more pregnancies is linked to fewer symptoms. Survey study, 2011 Do smoking habits affect premenstrual and menstrual symptoms? Smokers had significantly more severe premenstrual and menstrual symptoms than non-smokers, especially pain, concentration problems, water retention, and mood changes. Worse symptoms were linked to higher nicotine dependence. Survey study, 2011 How common is premenstrual syndrome in Turkish college students and how does it affect quality of life? Premenstrual syndrome was found in 72.1% of college students and was strongly associated with significantly reduced quality of life. Case-control study, 2010 Does body weight affect the risk of developing PMS? Yes. Higher body mass index (BMI) is associated with increased PMS risk. Each 1 kg/m² increase in BMI was linked to a 3% increase in PMS risk. Cohort study, 2010 Which lifestyle factors and contraceptive methods are linked to premenstrual symptoms? About 1 in 4 women had premenstrual symptoms. Women with higher education and less stress had fewer symptoms. Hormonal birth control was linked with fewer symptoms. Cohort study, 2010 Does stress before your period make menstrual symptoms worse? Yes. Women with high stress in the month before their period had much worse menstrual symptoms, including both mood and physical symptoms. Randomised trial, 2010 Does the menstrual cycle phase affect smoking withdrawal severity and relapse risk? Yes. Women who quit smoking during the luteal phase (second half of the cycle) experienced more severe withdrawal and premenstrual symptoms. Anger and craving during quit attempts were linked to higher relapse risk. Randomised trial, 2009 Does the menstrual cycle phase affect a woman's ability to quit smoking? Yes. Women had significantly higher premenstrual symptoms and smoking urges in the luteal phase, and variability in these measures was linked to relapse. Case-control study, 2009 Does alcohol use increase the risk of developing PMS or PMDD? Alcohol use is not strongly linked to developing PMS or PMDD. Starting to drink before age 18 or long-term drinking may minimally increase risk, but the increases are small. Case-control study, 2008 Does smoking increase the risk of PMS? Yes. Current smokers were 2.1 times more likely than never smokers to develop PMS over 2-4 years. Women who started smoking before age 15 had 2.53 times higher risk. Non-randomised trial, 2008 Does the timing of quitting smoking in the menstrual cycle affect success? Yes. Women who quit during the early cycle phase before ovulation were much more likely to remain abstinent than those who quit during the premenstrual phase. At one week after quitting, 31 percent of early-cycle women were smoking compared with 71 percent of premenstrual-phase women. Survey study, 2007 Are diet and lifestyle factors associated with premenstrual symptoms? Most dietary factors were not related to PMS. Smoking increased symptoms, and alcohol was associated with fewer mood and headache symptoms. Case-control study, 2007 What environmental and hormonal factors affect asthma severity in women? Body weight and hormonal changes around the menstrual cycle are associated with asthma severity in women. Smoking and occupational exposures also increase severity. Cohort study, 2007 Does stress affect menstrual regularity? Yes. Women with histories of trauma or parental substance abuse were more likely to have irregular periods or missed periods. Randomised trial, 2005 Does a low dose of alcohol change allopregnanolone, a brain chemical linked to PMDD? During the late cycle phase, a small dose of intravenous alcohol decreased allopregnanolone levels in both women with severe PMS and control women, but this did not happen during the early cycle phase. This is moderate evidence, but the study is small and used an unnatural way of giving alcohol. Survey study, 2002 Does sexual behavior change across different phases of the menstrual cycle? Sexual behavior varies across cycle phases. Masturbation is highest during the follicular and ovulatory phases for women without a partner, but not for those with a live-in partner. Sexual activity with a partner peaks in the follicular phase for both groups. Survey study, 2001 What behaviors and factors are linked to breast pain during the menstrual cycle? Smoking, caffeine consumption, and stress are each associated with more breast pain. Birth control pills are associated with less breast pain and PMS. Randomised trial, 2000 Does a nicotine patch help reduce smoking cravings and premenstrual symptoms? Yes, a nicotine patch reduced smoking cravings and some premenstrual symptoms including pain and water retention, with the strongest effects during the late luteal phase. Randomised trial, 2000 Does the menstrual cycle phase affect energy intake and metabolism during smoking cessation? No direct effect from smoking abstinence itself, but the menstrual cycle phase significantly affected energy intake and expenditure, with women consuming and burning more calories during the late luteal phase regardless of smoking status. Cohort study, 2000 What causes irregular periods in women with bulimia, and do they improve with treatment? Irregular periods in bulimia were linked to vomiting, low thyroid hormone, and low dietary fat. After 12 months of treatment, 56.8 percent of women with irregular cycles became regular. This study concerns eating disorders, not PMS or PMDD. Review, 2000 What conditions beyond depression can antidepressants treat? Newer antidepressants including SSRIs have FDA approval for several conditions including anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and panic disorder. Controlled studies also show they help premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Randomised trial, 2000 Does how much women smoke change at different times of their menstrual cycle? Yes. Women smoked more cigarettes during the late luteal phase (days before menstruation), but mood and withdrawal symptoms were similar across cycle phases. Study, 2000 Is it easier to quit smoking at a particular time in the menstrual cycle? Yes. Women who quit smoking during the first 14 days of their cycle experienced fewer withdrawal symptoms and less depression compared to women who quit later in their cycle. Survey study, 1999 What lifestyle and personal factors are linked to PMS? Stress and alcohol use are strongly linked to PMS. Younger women and those with longer periods are more likely to have PMS. Women with PMS were more likely to exercise regularly. Cohort study, 1999 How common are depression symptoms in women in their late 30s and early 40s, and what predicts them? About 22% of women aged 36-44 showed depression symptoms. Marital status, smoking, and having children predicted depression risk more than menstrual cycle changes alone. Randomised trial, 1999 Does menstrual cycle phase affect smoking withdrawal symptoms? Withdrawal symptoms from smoking were not significantly different depending on menstrual cycle phase. However, the urge to smoke did increase in the late luteal phase, suggesting women may find quitting harder at that time. Survey study, 1998 Does a history of premenstrual problems predict worse symptoms during menopause? Yes. Women who had premenstrual problems experienced more physical and psychological symptoms during the menopause transition. Study, 1996 Are smoking withdrawal and premenstrual symptoms connected to the menstrual cycle? Yes. Smoking withdrawal symptoms and premenstrual symptoms are both higher during the late luteal phase (just before the period). Symptoms are lower during the follicular phase (right after the period). Case-control study, 1995 What medical history factors are more common in women with PMS? Women with PMS were significantly more likely to have had postpartum depression, used birth control pills, consumed alcohol, and used drugs compared to women without PMS. The study cannot prove these factors cause PMS. Case-control study, 1993 Does alcohol or caffeine affect PMS? Alcohol consumption appears linked to PMS, particularly drinking during the symptom-free part of the menstrual cycle. Women who drank 10 or more drinks per week were much more likely to have moderate to severe PMS. Caffeine showed no clear link to PMS. Randomised trial, 1993 Does the point in your menstrual cycle change your mood, or change how alcohol affects your mood? No. This study found no evidence that mood or alcohol's effects on mood differed across menstrual cycle phases, suggesting cycle-linked mood swings may be more about expectations than biology, at least in this drinking context. Case-control study, 1991 How common are premenstrual symptoms in teenage girls, and what factors affect them? 80% of teenage girls had at least one premenstrual symptom, with 25% experiencing pain that severely interfered with daily activities. Symptoms varied by ethnic background and smoking. Study, 1990 Does a woman's alcohol consumption change during her menstrual cycle when she has premenstrual symptoms? No. While physical distress increased during the premenstrual and menstrual phases, alcohol consumption did not change with the cycle. Social factors such as spending time with others and the day of the week influenced drinking instead. Survey study, 1988 How do birth control methods and smoking affect menstrual periods? Women taking oral contraceptives report fewer menstrual problems like heavy or painful periods. Women using IUCDs report heavier and more frequent periods. Smokers report more menstrual problems than non-smokers, with current smokers reporting the worst. Study, 1986 Is low vitamin B6 a cause of PMS? No. Vitamin B6 levels were similar in women with severe PMS and those without symptoms, suggesting B6 deficiency does not cause PMS. Study, 1983 Does menstrual cycle affect how much alcohol women drink? For women not on birth control, yes. They reported more negative moods before their period and drank alcohol more often to help with stress and sadness, particularly drinking alone. Women on birth control pills did not show this pattern. Case report, 2026 Can anxiety and PMDD trigger binge drinking, and can medication help? This single case shows that a woman whose binge drinking episodes were triggered by anxiety and linked to her PMDD improved with medication: her anxiety and drinking urges decreased, and she had no new drinking episodes at 12 weeks. Survey study, 2026 How common is PMS among college-going girls in India? More than half had some PMS symptoms. 27.5% had severe PMS and 3.5% had very severe PMS. Cohort study, 2026 How are meal timing and sleep timing associated with PMS symptoms and menstrual pain? Meal and sleep timing were associated with PMS symptoms and menstrual pain, but the connections differed between workdays and free days. Because this was a cross-sectional study, we cannot be sure if changing meal or sleep times would actually improve symptoms. Survey study, 2026 What substances do people use to manage premenstrual symptoms? People most commonly use cannabis, alcohol, and psychedelics to manage premenstrual mood symptoms. People with PMDD use cannabis much more often than others, but we don't yet know how well these substances actually work. Survey study, 2026 What factors affect how severe PMS is in women with PCOS? Women with PCOS commonly have severe PMS. Smoking, lower education, and not being treated for anemia increase severity, while regular periods decrease it. Cohort study, 2026 Do genetics and stress factors affect how severe premenstrual symptoms are? Yes. Women with genes linked to depression plus stress factors like low emotional resilience, childhood trauma, or alcohol use had significantly more severe symptoms and higher odds of probable PMS disorder. Case report, 2026 Can hormonal therapy treat psychotic symptoms tied to the menstrual cycle? This case describes a 26-year-old woman whose psychotic symptoms appeared with her menstrual cycle. Antipsychotic medication initially helped, but low-dose hormonal birth control led to lasting improvement. Interview study, 2025 Does the menstrual cycle affect alcohol use and what should researchers study about this? Some people reported drinking less during their period and drinking to cope with premenstrual symptoms, though many weren't aware of these pattern changes. People need better education about their menstrual cycle and healthcare support. Survey study, 2025 Is there a link between premenstrual syndrome and obsessive-compulsive symptoms? Yes, 74.2% of young women had PMS and showed significantly higher obsessive-compulsive symptoms than those without PMS, particularly in rumination. The link suggests PMS and psychological symptoms are connected. Study, 2025 Do women use cannabis more during certain menstrual cycle phases, and does mood affect when they use it? Women use cannabis more frequently during the premenstrual phase, and whether they use it to manage mood or physical pain depends on how depressed or angry they feel during different cycle phases. Study, 2025 Does difficulty managing emotions make menstrual mood symptoms worse? Yes. Women who struggled to manage their emotions had higher anxiety and sadness during the days right before and at the start of their period, and experienced stronger urges to smoke when they felt sadder during this time. Survey study, 2025 How common are period pain and PMS in Spanish university students, and do lifestyle choices affect them? Over half had period pain and most had PMS symptoms. Women who ate fewer Mediterranean foods, exercised less, and used tobacco had worse symptoms. Survey study, 2025 Does PMS affect how well nursing students can focus on learning? Yes. PMS was negatively linked to learning focus and was one of five main factors affecting students' ability to concentrate. Survey study, 2025 How do estrogen and progesterone affect anxiety and cigarette craving during the menstrual cycle? Anxiety and cigarette craving are highest during the 7 days before your period starts and the first 3 days after, regardless of hormone levels. At other times, higher progesterone and lower estrogen are linked to lower anxiety and craving. Survey study, 2025 Is PMS linked to eating disorders and body fat? Women with PMS had slightly higher body fat (38.1% vs 37.1%) and more smoking than women without PMS. However, high BMI, not PMS itself, was the main risk factor for eating disorders. Survey study, 2025 What lifestyle and body composition factors are associated with PMS in young women? Extra caffeine and salt consumption were significantly linked to PMS. Poor diet, alcohol, and smoking were also associated with menstrual problems, and PMS severely affected social life and daily activities. Survey study, 2024 What types of premenstrual syndrome exist and how common are they? Premenstrual syndrome comes in four types: anxiety-type (38%), swelling-type (26%), depression-type (22%), and cravings-type (11%). We can be fairly confident of this, though the study only included students in one Russian city. Lab study, 2024 Can l-theanine delivered through a gel patch help PMS symptoms? This is a laboratory study preparing a gel that can deliver l-theanine through the skin. The gel successfully delivered l-theanine in mice, so it might work for PMS symptoms, but it has not yet been tested in humans with PMS. Survey study, 2024 What are the most common PMS symptoms in medical students and what lifestyle factors make them worse? Anxiety, bloating, and breast tenderness are most common. Coffee drinking, eating sweets, smoking, and heavier periods are linked to worse symptoms, though this doesn't prove they cause PMS. Survey study, 2023 Is there a link between PMS symptoms and how the nervous system controls heart rate? Possibly. Three women showed medium to high connections between their PMS symptoms and heart rate variability throughout the menstrual cycle, especially for mood symptoms. Lab study, 2022 Do women with PMS have different levels of calcium and magnesium in their blood? Women with PMS had no clear difference in calcium levels in the blood compared to women without PMS, but they had a clear difference in magnesium levels. Cohort study, 2022 Does heavy use of caffeine, alcohol, or tobacco link to worse PMS symptoms? College women who used more caffeine, alcohol, or tobacco had more severe PMS symptoms. The more substances used together, the worse the symptoms became. Case-control study, 2022 Do women with PMS in addiction treatment experience more alcohol cravings? Women in addiction treatment with PMS had higher alcohol cravings than community women. PMS symptoms predicted cravings in the treatment group but not the general population, and PMS was much more common in women with substance use disorders. Survey study, 2022 How common are PMS and PMDD in university students and what factors increase the risk? Nearly half of university students have PMS (46.9%) and about 1 in 10 have PMDD (11.1%). Depression, recent alcohol use, and being a first or second year student are risk factors. Survey study, 2021 What factors are linked to irregular periods in college students? 32.6% of college women had irregular periods. Being anemic, drinking alcohol, sleeping very little, feeling stressed, iodine deficiency, and being underweight were all linked to irregular periods. Review, 2021 What symptoms and health impacts do women experience from menstrual distress? Women with menstrual distress experience physical symptoms like cramping, tiredness, and breast pain, plus emotional symptoms like sadness and anxiety. These affect their ability to work, attend school, and maintain mental health. Survey study, 2021 How common is PMS among female athletes and what causes it? 14.5% of elite female athletes met PMS criteria and reported high rates of fatigue, anger, and muscle pain. The study found no clear links to training intensity, body weight, diet, or other factors investigated. Survey study, 2021 Do women with PMDD use more cannabis premenstrually to cope with mood symptoms? Yes, women with PMDD use more cannabis premenstrually and menstrually, driven by depressed mood and a desire to cope with negative feelings. Women with PMDD used significantly more cannabis overall than those without PMDD. Survey study, 2020 How do diet and lifestyle factors relate to PMS and PMDD in medical students? Alcohol and tobacco use were linked to PMDD. Diet type was not linked to PMS or PMDD. Anger and irritability were the most common symptoms. Survey study, 2020 Does the relationship between mood and alcohol drinking change depending on progesterone levels? Women were more likely to drink on days when mood was negative and progesterone was falling. Women with consistently lower mood throughout the cycle did not show this pattern and were more likely to drink regardless of progesterone changes. Survey study, 2020 How common is PMS in elite female athletes, and do training or lifestyle factors cause it? 14.55% of elite female athletes have moderate to severe PMS. No specific modifiable risk factors were found. 76.6% of athletes felt their symptoms interfered with performance, but only 5 out of 18 athletes with PMS saw a doctor. Lab study, 2019 Does stress and cannabis use change across the menstrual cycle? In women who regularly use cannabis, both stress levels and the amount of cannabis used were higher during the premenstrual phase compared to other cycle phases. This suggests women may use more cannabis premenstrually to manage higher stress. Survey study, 2018 Do women's reasons for drinking alcohol change across their menstrual cycle? Yes. Women drink to cope with negative emotions more during menstruation and for social reasons more throughout their cycle. These changes predict how much alcohol women drink. Survey study, 2017 Do women believe cannabis helps their PMS or PMDD symptoms? Yes, women who use cannabis for PMS or PMDD believe it reduces most of their symptoms. However, very little research exists on whether it actually works or is safe. Survey study, 2017 How do lifestyles differ between women with and without PMS? Women with PMS had worse diets, higher stress, and more secondhand smoke exposure compared to women without PMS, all statistically significant. But we cannot prove these factors cause PMS. Survey study, 2017 Do your menstrual hormones affect how much you drink? Yes. When estradiol was high and progesterone was low, around the time you ovulate, women drank more and binged more, but only on weekends. Survey study, 2017 Are dietary and lifestyle habits like alcohol consumption linked to PMS in college students? The study examined alcohol consumption in college students and found females drink much less than males. The connection to PMS specifically is not clearly described. Survey study, 2017 How common is PMS in university students and is it related to depression? More than half of university students had PMS (58.1%), and there was a strong link between PMS and depression risk. Women with depression were more likely to have PMS symptoms. Survey study, 2017 Does fear of period pain affect mood and thinking during the menstrual cycle? Yes. Women expecting severe period pain showed increased anxiety and depression and slower thinking response during the premenstrual phase, suggesting that fear of pain affects emotions and cognition. Survey study, 2016 Is there a link between physical activity level and PMS? Yes. Both too little and too much physical activity are linked with more PMS than moderate activity. Cause and effect cannot be determined from this observational study. Survey study, 2016 Are premenstrual mood symptoms linked to beliefs about smoking? Women with more severe mood-related premenstrual symptoms believed smoking relieves negative mood and quitting causes withdrawal. This association was weaker after adjusting for other factors. Survey study, 2016 What lifestyle factors affect PMS and life quality in students? Among Turkish health science students, 84.5% had PMS. Those with irregular periods, family history, poor diet, and high caffeine or alcohol use had worse PMS and lower quality of life. However, this is observational and cannot prove these factors cause PMS. Study, 2015 Does how women smokers react to stress change during their menstrual cycle? Yes. Women smokers react to stress differently depending on where they are in their cycle. Survey study, 2015 How common is PMS in Turkish medical students and does it affect quality of life? PMS is very common in Turkish medical students (91.8%), and those with severe PMS have the lowest quality of life scores. Survey study, 2015 Does lower estrogen during menopause cause depression and anxiety? Women going through menopause who had depression had lower estrogen levels than those without depression, suggesting a link. The very small sample means we cannot prove this causes depression. Survey study, 2015 Does menstrual cycle phase affect how nicotine affects women? Yes, menstrual cycle phase affects how smoking activates stress hormones and subjective feelings. Women in the high progesterone luteal phase showed reduced emotional and hormonal responses to smoking compared to other phases. Survey study, 2015 Does drinking alcohol change at different times of the menstrual cycle? The results were mixed. Some research found women drink more before menstruation, some found they drink less, and some found no change. The differences may be because researchers measured the cycle and alcohol in different ways. Survey study, 2014 What makes PMS worse in college women, stress or how they feel about periods? Both matter. Women with higher stress and a more negative attitude toward menstruation tended to have worse PMS, along with smoking and painful periods, but together these only explained about a quarter of the difference between women. Survey study, 2013 Does smoking behavior change across the menstrual cycle and is it linked to mood and period symptoms? Yes. Young women smokers smoked more cigarettes and had stronger cravings during the luteal phase (second half of the cycle). Smoking was linked to higher depression and menstrual symptoms, but the study cannot prove smoking causes these or vice versa. Survey study, 2013 What causes depression during pregnancy, and does PMS increase the risk? Yes. Depression during pregnancy is linked to many factors including premenstrual syndrome. Emotional support from partners and family members significantly reduces the risk. Survey study, 2013 How do lifestyle and attitudes about periods affect PMS severity? Negative attitudes about menstruation and problematic alcohol use are linked to worse PMS, and painful periods (dysmenorrhea) are most strongly linked to worse PMS. These are associations, not proof of cause and effect. Survey study, 2012 Do women with PMS drink alcohol differently than other women? Women with PMS mood patterns reported higher hard alcohol use and felt less negative when drinking than women with other mood patterns. The link may relate to how hormones affect brain chemistry and alcohol's mood effects. Randomised trial, 2012 Does alcohol affect brain activity and thinking differently at different times in the menstrual cycle? Yes, alcohol had a stronger harmful effect on thinking during the follicular phase (first part of cycle) when progesterone is low. This was shown through brain wave patterns. Lab study, 2012 What's the best way to extract Yueanjian herb to treat PMS? Steam-distillation produced the best results in rats with PMS symptoms, based on hormone and behavior changes. However, this was tested in rats, not in women, so it's unclear how it would work in people. Survey study, 2010 Does the menstrual cycle affect how women who smoke crave cigarettes? Yes. Women who smoke showed stronger cravings and physical reactions to smoking cues at certain times in their cycle, particularly in the mid-follicular phase. Survey study, 2010 Does premenstrual distress predict how women respond to challenges that trigger panic? Women with higher premenstrual distress had significantly greater panic symptoms when breathing CO2-enriched air, but this is preliminary evidence in a small study. Study, 2009 Can the standard mental health diagnostic interview assess PMS and PMDD adequately? No. The standard interview does not assess PMS, PMDD, or other women-specific mental health conditions. New diagnostic modules were developed to address this gap. Survey study, 2009 Does menstrual cycle phase affect how well women follow drug treatment? The study found relationships between menstrual cycle phase and treatment compliance through anxiety levels, but the exact connection needs more research. Survey study, 2008 Does smoking cause menstrual problems? Yes, in this study. Smoking women had higher rates of menstrual problems including painful periods, sore breasts, and mood changes before their period. Interview study, 2006 Does quitting smoking feel harder at certain times of your menstrual cycle? A review of 13 studies found that some showed women experience more withdrawal and cravings during the luteal phase (the second half of the cycle), but the evidence is inconsistent. Cohort study, 2006 Does family history of alcoholism affect PMS and drinking patterns? Women with family history of alcoholism increased drinking before their period more than others, yet had fewer PMS symptoms. The study was small but suggests family history may influence how drinking patterns relate to PMS. Review, 2006 Do hormone-related brain chemicals explain why some women develop mood disorders? Possibly. Natural steroid hormones in the brain, like allopregnanolone, seem to affect GABA, the brain's main calming chemical, and this interaction may contribute to mood and substance use disorders in women, according to a review of lab and clinical research. Survey study, 2005 Is obesity a risk factor for PMS? Yes. Obese women had nearly 3 times the risk of PMS compared to non-obese women, though the study cannot prove obesity causes PMS. Survey study, 2005 Are suicidal attempts more likely during certain phases of the menstrual cycle? Yes. Suicidal attempts were most frequent during the menstrual phase. However, this study only looked at women already hospitalized for attempts, so it cannot tell us the true risk in the general population. Randomised trial, 2004 Does PMDD change how women respond to alcohol during their menstrual cycle? Yes, women with PMDD show reduced sensitivity to alcohol in the late luteal phase of their cycle, while women without PMDD do not show this change. Survey study, 2004 Does PMS severity predict how much alcohol college women drink? PMS severity predicted weekday alcohol drinking but not weekend drinking. The link appears to exist before serious drinking problems develop. Survey study, 2003 Do work conditions make premenstrual and menstrual symptoms worse? Yes. Physical work demands and job stress were the biggest work-related factors that made symptoms worse. Chronic illness and alcohol use also made symptoms worse. Lab study, 2002 Does alcohol interact with brain chemistry during PMS and explain increased drinking premenstrually? Yes. A specific type of brain receptor that changes during PMS is very sensitive to low alcohol doses, which could explain why alcohol affects anxiety more during the premenstrual phase. Survey study, 2002 What medical conditions and lifestyle factors affect menstrual cycle patterns? Several factors are linked to abnormal cycle patterns. Higher body weight, depression, starting periods after age 14, smoking, and a history of difficulty getting pregnant are all associated with changes in cycle length. Randomised trial, 2002 Does how women respond to cocaine depend on their menstrual cycle phase? Yes. Women show stronger effects from cocaine during the follicular phase than the luteal phase, including greater heart rate increase and feeling more high. Cohort study, 2001 Do women with PMDD who have never had depression differ from those who have? Women with PMDD and no past depression history tend to be more educated and more likely to have experienced relationship breakdown, but are otherwise similar to women with PMDD who have had depression. Review, 2001 Can citalopram, an antidepressant, help premenstrual dysphoria? Yes, citalopram is an antidepressant shown in controlled trials to help premenstrual dysphoria, depression, anxiety, and other conditions. This review focuses on the drug's general benefits, not specifically on PMS. Survey study, 2001 Does the menstrual cycle affect how alcohol impacts flying ability? No clear difference. Women pilots' flight performance after drinking was the same during their menstrual phase and luteal phase, even though hormone levels were much higher in the luteal phase. Survey study, 2001 How common is premenstrual dysphoric disorder and how is it related to other psychiatric conditions? About 75-85% of women report some premenstrual symptoms, but only 10-15% seek care and 2-5% experience serious disruption to work or social life. PMS may worsen other psychiatric conditions. Survey study, 2000 Does the menstrual cycle affect how much people smoke or how hard it is to quit? Not strongly. Smoking was slightly higher mid-cycle, and withdrawal was worse in women with depression, but the cycle phase did not strongly predict smoking behavior. Non-randomised trial, 1999 Do menstrual cycle and oral contraceptive use affect how the body reacts to smoking? Yes. Women using oral contraceptives had stronger cardiovascular reactions to smoking than those not using them, and these reactions varied by menstrual cycle phase. This may contribute to increased heart disease risk. Survey study, 1996 Do women with alcohol dependence drink more during the premenstrual phase? Yes, about one-third of women with alcohol dependence drank more premenstrually than at other times of the month. This finding is based on a small study, so we cannot be very certain about it. Non-randomised trial, 1996 Do women with PMDD have different brain wave patterns linked to alcoholism risk? Yes. Women with PMDD showed different patterns in brain waves and electrical responses compared to healthy women. Those with a family history of alcoholism showed even more pronounced differences, suggesting PMDD and alcoholism risk may share biological mechanisms. Survey study, 1994 Do women with PMDD use more cigarettes, alcohol, or drugs at certain times in their cycle? Yes. Women with PMDD increased smoking, alcohol, and other drug use during menstruation. However, the peak use did not match their worst mood symptoms, suggesting it is not simply using these substances to feel better. Survey study, 1994 Does substance use change with the menstrual cycle? No, cigarette smoking, alcohol, and caffeine intake remain stable across all phases of the menstrual cycle and do not change with menstrual symptoms. Study, 1994 Do women with both PMS and anxiety who have family alcoholism drink more before their period? Yes. 74% of women with family history of alcoholism on their father's side reported drinking more before their period, compared to only 22% without this family history. Cohort study, 1994 Do women with PMS drink more alcohol? Yes. Women with PMS reported drinking significantly more alcohol than women without PMS, and this was true across the whole month, not just before their period. Review, 1993 Can eating carbohydrates improve a bad mood, including PMS mood? This review says yes, eating simple carbohydrates seems to give a temporary mood lift, including for premenstrual symptoms, though cutting carbs out entirely may give more lasting relief for some people, and the exact reason this works is still unknown. Survey study, 1992 Does the menstrual cycle affect a woman's ability to quit smoking? Yes. Premenstrual women had much less success stopping smoking and experienced more tiredness, confusion, depression, anxiety, and irritability than women in the midcycle phase. Survey study, 1991 Does how you smell things change during the menstrual cycle? How sensitive women were to smells did not change during the menstrual cycle. However, how much women liked one smell (androstenone) showed a clear pattern across the cycle, peaking at ovulation. Survey study, 1991 Are sugary foods and drinks linked to premenstrual syndrome? Among women with severe PMS, eating chocolate was linked to PMS while other junk foods were not. Drinking alcohol, fruit juice, and caffeine-free soda were all linked to PMS in these women, with associations holding even when caffeine intake was controlled for. Survey study, 1990 Does alcohol use change during the premenstrual phase, and how does it relate to PMS symptoms? 8 of 14 women drank differently during the premenstrual phase. Women who drank more premenstrually had worse symptoms, especially anger and social problems, while those who drank less reported more physical pain. Study, 1989 Does smoking change at different times of the menstrual cycle? Yes. Most of the women in this study increased their smoking during the menstrual phase compared to other times of their cycle. Survey study, 1989 How do stress and lifestyle affect perimenstrual symptoms? Chronic stress was significantly linked to more severe perimenstrual symptoms. Of lifestyle factors tested, only the amount of strenuous exercise showed a meaningful association with symptoms. Survey study, 1989 Do women's memories of premenstrual depression match their daily mood ratings? Only about half of women who reported major premenstrual depression on a questionnaire showed matching depression in daily tracking. Women with confirmed depression had worse energy and physical pain too. Survey study, 1988 Can a simple symptom tracker over 2 to 3 cycles identify which women have PMS? Yes. Tracking 6 common symptoms every day for 2 to 3 cycles can identify women whose symptoms cluster before their period, which may indicate true PMS. Survey study, 1987 Does alcohol use change across the menstrual cycle? Among 30 women who use marijuana, alcohol drinking frequency did not change with the menstrual cycle phase. Women who reported more premenstrual symptoms tended to drink slightly more, but the timing of the cycle did not predict drinking. Study, 1987 Do women smoke more when they drink alcohol, and does the time of their menstrual cycle affect this? Yes, a study of 24 women found that smoking increased when alcohol was available, especially in heavy smokers. Most women also smoked more just before their period. Study, 1986 Do women with agoraphobia experience worse anxiety before their period? Yes, just over half of the women with agoraphobia in this study experienced worse anxiety before their period. Survey study, 1986 Are women with PMS more likely to have alcohol abuse problems? Yes. Women seeking treatment for PMS had much higher rates of alcohol abuse (21%) compared to women coming for regular checkups (12%). Survey study, 1986 Does marijuana use change across the menstrual cycle? No. In women without severe PMS, marijuana use did not vary across the menstrual cycle, even though physical symptoms like pain and water retention worsened before and during menstruation. Lab study, 1986 Does alcohol affect you differently at different times in your menstrual cycle? No clear difference. Women's bodies processed alcohol similarly at different cycle phases, and alcohol's effects on memory, balance, and attention were not significantly different by cycle phase. Non-randomised trial, 1982 Does alcohol affect anxiety differently in women versus men, and does menstrual cycle phase matter? Yes. For women at the premenstruum, expecting alcohol increased reported anxiety, but actual alcohol appeared to reduce tension. Men showed increased physical stress responses but no reduction in negative emotions. The study suggests menstrual cycle phase may influence how women respond to alcohol. Study, 1981 Does alcohol affect anxiety differently depending on where you are in your menstrual cycle? Yes. Anxiety increased more with alcohol during the luteal phase (before your period) than during the follicular phase (first half of cycle). However, this was a very small study, so results may not apply widely. Review, 1981 Is prolactin involved in premenstrual syndrome and mood disorders? Prolactin is controlled by brain chemicals important in mood and behavior, suggesting researchers should study how it relates to PMS and psychiatric conditions. This is a theoretical review of research directions, not a test of treatment. Survey study, 1979 What social and psychological factors are linked to premenstrual tension and menstrual pain? Many factors are linked including age, country of birth, marital status, work attitudes, smoking, drinking, childbearing, sex life, and psychological factors. The study cannot determine if these factors cause PMS. Review, 1975 What does research say about women who struggle with alcohol? This is a 1975 review of existing studies, not a new study; it summarises what was known about women alcoholics and says more research is needed, but it does not report new results. Show more studies Ask AI about this page Copy prompt ChatGPT ↗ Claude ↗ Perplexity ↗ Google AI Mode ↗ Grok ↗